MAIN   LM2PARV    J^d-UC. 


THE  TEACHING  OF  GOVERNMENT 


THE  MACMILLAN  COMPANY 

NEW  YORK   •   BOSTON   •    CHICAGO    •  DALLAS 
ATLANTA    •   SAN  FRANCISCO 

MACMILLAN  &  CO.,  LIMITED 

LONDON   •  BOMBAY   •  CALCUTTA 
MELBOURNE 

THE  MACMILLAN  CO.  OF  CANADA,  LTD. 

TORONTO 


THE 
TEACHING  OF  GOVERNMENT 


REPORT  TO  THE  AMERICAN   POLITICAL  SCIENCE 

ASSOCIATION  BY  THE  COMMITTEE 

ON  INSTRUCTION 


CHARLES   GROVE  HAINES,  Chairman 

J.    LYNN   BARNARD  MABEL  HILL 

EDGAR  DAWSON  FRANK   E.   HORACK 

WALTER  L.   FLEMING      JAMES  A.   JAMES 


fork 

THE   MACMILLAN   COMPANY 
1916 

All  rights  reserved 


COPYRIGHT,  igi6 

BY  THE  MACMILLAN  COMPANY 
Set  up  and  electrotyped.    Published  November,  1916. 


'N  LHBRARV 


PREFACE 

VARIOUS  national  organizations  are  vitally  interested  in  the 
effort  to  improve  the  teaching  of  government  in  the  schools. 
The  American  Political  Science  Association  is  naturally  one  of 
the  foremost  among  these  and  from  the  time  of  its  formation 
has  given  special  attention  to  methods  of  instruction  in  political 
science.  As  a  result  of  the  interest  manifested  in  the  first  ses- 
sions of  the  Association  a  committee  of  five  was  appointed  to 
investigate  and  report  upon  the  teaching  of  government  in 
secondary  schools.  The  report  of  this  committee  and  the  con- 
clusions resulting  therefrom  mark  an  important  stage  in  the 
movement  to  improve  civic  instruction.  To  supplement  the 
work  of  the  committee  of  five  and  to  extend  the  scope  of  its 
investigations  it  was  voted  at  the  annual  business  meeting  of 
the  Association  held  at  Buffalo  in  December,  1911,  "that  a 
committee  of  seven  members  be  appointed  to  consider  the  meth- 
ods of  teaching  and  studying  government  now  pursued  in  Amer- 
ican schools,  colleges  and  universities,  and  to  suggest  means 
of  enlarging  and  improving  such  instruction."  The  following 
members  were  appointed  by  the  President  to  constitute  this 
committee:  James  A.  James,  Professor  of  History,  Northwestern 
University;  Mabel  Hill,  Associate  Director  Garland  School, 
Boston,  Massachusetts;  Frank  E.  Horack,  Professor  of  Political 
Science,  State  University  of  Iowa;  Edgar  Dawson,  Professor  of 
Political  Science,  Hunter  College,  New  York  City;  Walter  L. 
Fleming,  Professor  of  History,  Louisiana  State  University,  J. 
Lynn  Barnard,  Professor  of  History  and  Government,  School 
of  Pedagogy,  Philadelphia;  and  Charles  Grove  Haines,  Professor 
of  Government,  University  of  Texas. 


vi  PREFACE 

The  committee  first  prepared  a  survey  of  the  activities  of 
other  organizations  which  are  interested  in  civic  instruction. 
Among  such  organizations  particular  attention  was  given  to 
the  discussions  and  reports  of  the  American  Historical  Asso- 
ciation, the  National  Municipal  League  and  the  National  Edu- 
cation Association,  as  well  as  the  report  on  secondary  schools 
by  the  committee  of  five  of  the  American  Political  Science  Asso- 
ciation. After  completing  this  survey  it  was  decided  by  the 
committee  to  secure  information  through:  (i)  an  investigation 
of  courses  in  political  science  offered  in  colleges  and  universities; 
(2)  an  inquiry  regarding  courses  and  methods  of  instruction  in 
elementary  and  secondary  schools;  (3)  a  consideration  of  the 
aid  and  encouragement  given  to  instruction  in  government  by 
state  departments  of  education  and  other  organizations  and 
societies.  Preliminary  reports  dealing  with  instruction  in  col- 
leges and  universities  were  presented  at  the  annual  meetings  of 
the  Association  in  Washington,  December,  1913  and  in  Chicago, 
December,  1914. 

At  the  meetings  of  the  committee  held  during  the  sessions 
of  the  Association  in  Washington,  December,  1913  it  was  decided 
to  continue  working  along  the  following  lines:  first,  to  pursue 
the  investigation  of  the  teaching  of  political  science  in  colleges 
and  universities  in  order  to  obtain  a  more  complete  report; 
second,  to  report  upon  the  progress  recently  made  in  the  teach- 
ing of  government  in  secondary  schools;  and  third,  to  prepare 
for  teachers  concrete  suggestions  as  to  courses  and  methods 
of  instruction  to  be  submitted  along  with  the  proposals  of  the 
committee  relative  to  elementary  and  secondary  schools.  On 
account  of  the  difficulties  involved  in  securing  a  meeting  of 
the  committee  at  a  time  and  place  convenient  to  all  members, 
group  conferences  were  held  in  Washington,  D.  C.,  New  York 
City,  and  Chicago.  Through  these  conferences  and  through 
the  submission  in  advance  of  all  proposed  recommendations 
a  full  discussion  has  been  secured  on  all  phases  of  the  report 


PREFACE  vii 

and  a  unanimous  approval  is  accorded  by  the  members  of  the 
committee  to  the  recommendations  offered.  Moreover,  one 
session  and  two  conferences  during  the  annual  meetings  1913-15 
were  devoted  to  the  presentation  and  discussion  of  various 
phases  of  the  report. 

The  committee  aims  to  offer  primarily  such  information  and 
data  as  are  available  relative  to  the  present  status  of  instruction 
in  government  with  some  recommendations  and  suggestions  to 
teachers.  Its  report  is  presented  with  a  view  to  aid  in  the 
process  of  reconstruction  which  is  now  well  on  its  way  as  to  the 
teaching  of  government  in  the  schools. 

In  the  pursuance  of  investigations  and  in  the  collection  of 
data  the  committee  is  under  great  obligations  for  assistance  re- 
ceived from  many  instructors  who  prepared  reports  on  local  con- 
ditions and  from  state  committees  comprised  of  teachers  and 
administrators  actively  engaged  in  public  school  work.  To  the 
Honorable  P.  P.  Claxton,  Commissioner  of  Education,  acknowl- 
edgment is  also  due  for  the  privilege  of  sending  circulars  to  sec- 
ondary schools  and  colleges  through  the  medium  of  the  Bureau 
of  Education.  Naturally,  in  a  report  of  such  an  extensive  char- 
acter dealing  with  many  controverted  problems  of  instruction 
the  Association  is  not  committed  to  all  of  the  expressions  of 
opinion  and  suggestions  herein  contained. 


CONTENTS 

PART  I 
RECENT  PROGRESS  IN  THE  TEACHING  OF  GOVERNMENT 

PAGE 

I.  STAGES  IN  THE  ADVANCEMENT  OF  Civic  INSTRUCTION i 

1.  Study  of  the  Constitution 2 

2.  The  Deductive  Method 2 

3.  Community  Civics 5 

II.  EFFORTS  TO  IMPROVE  THE  TEACHING  OF  GOVERNMENT  ....  7 

1.  National  Education  Association 8 

2.  American  Historical  Association n 

3.  National  Municipal  League 18 

4.  American  Political  Science  Association 21 

III.  THE  PURPOSE  OF  INSTRUCTION  IN  GOVERNMENT 27 

1.  Aims  of  Civic  Instruction 27 

2.  Civics  for  the  Education  of  the  Electorate 28 

3.  Civics  and  Social  Service 31 

4.  Danger  in  Civics  Teaching 32 

IV.  METHODS,  MATERIALS  AND  DEVICES 34 

1.  Ways  of  Rendering  Instruction  Practical 35 

2.  The  Community  Survey 39 

3.  Reference  Library  on  Civic  Affairs 40 

4.  State  and  National  Government 42 

5.  Thoroughness 44 

PART  II 

REPORT  ON  THE  TEACHING  OF  CIVICS  IN  SECONDARY 

SCHOOLS 

ADVANCED  CIVICS  IN  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS 

I.  REPORT  OF  THE  COMMITTEE  OF  SEVEN  IN  CO-OPERATION 

WITH  THE  BUREAU  OF  EDUCATION 46 

II.  SOME  DATA  ON  THE  TRAINING  OF  TEACHERS 65 

ix 


y   Su 


CONTENTS 

PART  III 
COURSES  OF  STUDY 

PAGE 

SUGGESTIONS  AS  TO  COURSES  OF  STUDY  AND  METHODS  OF 
APPROACH  TO  THE  STUDY  OF  GOVERNMENT 77 

1.  Suggestions  for  Civic  Topics  in  Elementary  Grades  . .     78 

2.  Community  Civics  for  Junior  High  School 82 

3.  Suggestions  for  a  course  in  Civics  for  Senior  High 

School ioo 

4.  Bibliographies  for  Teachers  and  School  Libraries in 

A.  Some  References  on  Methods  of  Teaching in 

B.  Bibliographical  Suggestions  for  Teachers 119 

C.  Bureau  of  Reference  for  Study  of  Civic  Affairs  133 

PART  IV 

REPORT  ON  THE  TEACHING  OF  POLITICAL  SCIENCE  IN 
COLLEGES  AND  UNIVERSITIES 

I.  PRELIMINARY  STATEMENT 135 

II.  TABLE  OF  COURSES  IN  POLITICAL  SCIENCE  IN  COLLEGES  AND 

UNIVERSITIES 141 

III.  OBSERVATIONS  AND  CONCLUSIONS 184 

1.  Inadequate  Provisions  for  Government  Instruction  184 

2.  The  Function  of  College  Instruction 187 

3.  Attendance  in  Courses 190 

4.  Textbooks 192 

5.  Methods  of  Instruction 193 

6.  Types  of  Courses 195 

7.  Suggestions  for  the  Improvement  of  Instruction.  ...  196 

IV.  RECOMMENDATIONS  FOR  THE  IMPROVEMENT  OF  COLLEGE 

INSTRUCTION 198 

APPENDIX 

REPORTS  OF  STATE  COMMITTEES  ON  THE  TEACHING  OF 
CIVICS  IN  ELEMENTARY  AND  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS 

I.  MEMBERS  OF  STATE  COMMITTEES  AND  STATE  REPRESENTA- 
TIVES SELECTED  TO  AID  THE  COMMITTEE  ON  INSTRUCTION    226 


CONTENTS  xi 

PAGE 

II.  REPORT  ON  THE  TEACHING  OF  Crvics 231 

1.  Alabama 231 

2.  Arkansas 233 

3.  California 234- 

4.  Colorado 238 

5.  Georgia 239 

6.  Illinois 240 

7.  Iowa 244 

8.  Kentucky 244 

9.  Maine 246 

10.  Maryland 248 

11.  Massachusetts 251 

12.  Michigan 255 

13.  New  Hampshire 258 

14.  New  York 260 

15.  North  Dakota 264 

16.  Ohio 264 

17.  Virginia 266 

18.  Washington 268 

19.  West  Virginia 274 

20.  Wisconsin 279 


THE  TEACHING  OF  GOVERNMENT 


THE  TEACHING  OF  GOVERNMENT 


PART  I 

RECENT  PROGRESS  IN  THE  TEACHING  OF 
GOVERNMENT 

RELATING     CHIEFLY     TO     INSTRUCTION     IN     ELEMENTARY     AND 
SECONDARY  SCHOOLS 

IT  is  difficult  to  determine  the  exact  time  at  which  instruc- 
tion in  civil  government  was  begun  in  the  public  schools.  One 
of  the  first  evidences  of  an  interest  in  the  study  of  the  subject 
is  to  be  found  in  the  plea  for  civic  instruction  before  the  National 
Education  Association  in  1859.  Information  as  to  the  nature 
of  the  course  offered  at  this  time  is  indefinite.  It  seems  that  the 
first  result  of  the  special  plea  for  the  study  of  civil  government 
was  the  introduction  of  a  course  devoted  to  the  Constitution  of 
the  United  States.  This  course  at  first  involved  merely  a  reading 
of  the  Constitution  with  general  comments  on  the  special  fea- 
tures of  the  fundamental  law. 

I.  Stages  in  the  Advancement  of  Civic  Instruction. 

Since  the  meagre  beginning  made  in  the  third  quarter  of 
the  nineteenth  century,  the  teaching  of  civics  has  progressed 
through  three  rather  well  marked  stages: — 

1.  Study  of  the  Constitution. 

2.  The  Deductive  Method. 

3.  Community  Civics. 


2        THE  TEACHING  OF  GOVERNMENT 

1.  Study  of  the  Constitution. 

Civic  instruction,  which  was  at  first  based  primarily  upon 
the  Constitution,  resulted  in  the  preparation  of  certain  man- 
uals taking  up  the  Constitution  clause  by  clause.  This  type 
of  manual  was  the  natural  outcome  of  that  veneration  for  our 
national  charter  which  has  won  both  admiration  and  caustic 
comments  from  foreign  critics.  It  is  undoubtedly  true  that  a 
spirit  of  veneration  for  American  institutions  and  for  the  prin- 
ciples embodied  in  federal  and  state  governments  was  thus 
fostered.  Although  no  very  exact  or  useful  knowledge  of  prac- 
tical political  affairs  resulted  from  this  type  of  course,  it  never- 
theless marked  the  first  step  in  anything  like  definite  instruction 
in  government.  The  influence  of  this  period  of  civic  instruction 
is  still  apparent  in  certain  texts  which  are  in  use  in  the  schools 
of  some  of  the  states.  Fortunately,  the  scope  of  instruction  has 
been  broadened  and  texts  which  cover  a  wider  range  of  matters 
of  general  interest  to  the  citizen  have  rapidly  replaced  all  but  a 
few  of  the  former  constitution  manuals. 

2.  Deductive  Method. 

The  formal  presentation  of  the  provisions  of  the  federal 
Constitution  was  soon  expanded  into  a  more  comprehensive 
plan  of  course  involving  also  a  consideration  of  the  state 
constitution  and  including  in  most  cases  a  list  of  officers, 
federal,  state  and  county.  Although  changed  in  its  scope,  this 
course  was  very  similar  to  the  earlier  constitution  study.  It  was 
based  upon  a  deductive  method,  beginning  with  the  provisions 
of  the  constitution  and  going  on  to  the  names,  terms,  salaries  and 
the  formal  functions  of  these  officers  as  determined  by  law.  The 
method  ordinarily  pursued  required  chiefly  an  exercise  of  the 
memory  in  learning  sections  and  divisions  of  constitutions  and 
the  names,  duties  and  salaries  of  public  officers.  Just  as  the  old 
constitution  manual  has  remained  despite  the  many  evidences 
of  change  and  progress  in  civic  training,  so  the  deductive  method 


RECENT    PROGRESS  3 

is  still  retained  by  many  who  are  trying  to  educate  the  young 
minds  in  the  ways  of  citizenship  by  a  memory  process  in  the 
temporary  accumulation  of  a  host  of  facts  which  are  fortunately 
soon  forgotten. 

This  method  of  instruction  likewise  dealt  chiefly  with  the 
federal  Constitution  and  government  and  gave  only  an  incidental 
and  cursory  consideration  to  state  and  local  affairs.  There  was 
little  or  no  effort  to  educate  toward  a  citizenship  in  the  com- 
munity surrounding  the  children  by  a  study  of  the  simpler  and 
more  interesting  functions  and  responsibilities  of  the  school, 
the  home  and  the  community.  Those  things  which  could  be 
of  the  most  general  and  distant  interest  were  emphasized  to 
the  exclusion  of  the  many  matters  of  vital  importance  and 
local  concern  which  affect  profoundly  political  and  social  con- 
ditions of  the  community.  Much  attention  was  given  to  the 
President,  Congress,  the  cabinet  officers  and  their  multifarious 
duties,  a  slightly  less  complete  account  of  the  state  govern- 
ment, and  a  mere  passing  consideration  to  county  officers  and 
their  legal  duties.  National  affairs  usually  occupied  the  greater 
portion  of  the  short  time  allotted,  leaving  opportunity  for 
only  passing  reference  to  state  and  local  matters. 

American  History  and  Civil  Government. 

On  account  of  the  close  relationship  between  American  his- 
tory and  the  civil  government  course  based  on  a  study  of  the 
federal  Constitution  an  arrangement  was  eventually  devised 
by  which  these  two  subjects  were  combined,  especially  in  the 
high  school  curriculum.  American  history  dealt  largely  with 
political  and  constitutional  matters,  and  government  was 
thought  to  be  comprehended  in  the  continuous  evolution  and 
unfolding  of  the  federal  fundamental  law.  There  was  thus 
evolved  a  combination  course — American  history  and  civics. 
Teachers  began  to  adopt  one  of  three  methods  of  procedure: 
first,  to  announce  a  combined  course  but  to  give  all  of  the  time 


4  THE  TEACHING  OF  GOVERNMENT 

to  history,  on  the  theory  that  all  that  is  worth  while  in  govern- 
ment was  of  necessity  comprehended  within  the  scope  of  his- 
tory; second,  to  announce  and  offer  the  two  in  combination  by 
means  of  a  special  elaboration  of  such  topics  as  were  deemed  to 
be  governmental  in  nature,  this  differing  from  the  first  only 
in  that  there  was  a  tendency  at  least  to  give  some  separate  con- 
sideration to  government;  third,  the  major  part  of  the  time  was 
given  to  history,  but  a  few  periods  ranging  from  a  week  to  four 
or  five  weeks  were  given  to  a  study  of  government.  Under  this 
plan  an  effort  was  sometimes  made  to  deal  briefly  with  the 
various  divisions  of  government,  federal  and  state.  Such  a 
plan  offered  an  opportunity  to  the  conscientious  teacher  to 
give  at  least  a  modest  and  not  altogether  futile  introduction 
to  the  study  of  government.  The  arrangement  might  have 
proved  fairly  satisfactory  except  for  the  fact  that  as  a  rule  the 
time  for  government  was  not  definitely  set  apart  and  when  the 
claims  of  the  history  outline  were  met  there  was  not  even  enough 
time  to  give  an  introduction  to  government  as  a  functioning  or- 
ganization. A  compromise  was  sometimes  effected  by  which  his- 
tory was  given  full  time  and  the  children  were  encouraged  to  be- 
gin their  training  in  citizenship  by  reading,  incidental  to  the 
course,  a  civics  manual.  It  is  needless  to  suggest  the  result. 
This  condition  has  been  gradually  superseded  either  by  an  ar- 
rangement which  gives  three  hours  per  week  to  American  history 
and  two  hours  to  civics  throughout  the  fourth  year  of  the  high 
school  or  by  giving  half  of  the  year  to  each  of  the  two  subjects. 
The  latter  plan  is  growing  in  favor  particularly  in  the  schools  of 
the  South  and  West. 

No  one  would  be  so  foolish  as  to  propose  to  neglect  the  close 
relationship  between  history  and  civics.  Nor  would  anyone 
attempt  to  deny  that  history  and  civics  should  be  closely  cor- 
related throughout  the  entire  curriculum.  It  is  only  intended 
to  emphasize  here  that  civics  comprises  a  content  and  method 
which  cannot  be  treated  adequately  in  connection  with  history, 


RECENT  PROGRESS  5 

since  the  subject  can  no  longer  be  regarded  as  simply  a  study 
of  the  constitution  and  framework  of  government  in  its  historic 
development. 

If  the  public  schools  are  to  fulfill  their  function  in  a  country 
where  democratic  theories  and  practices  prevail,  if  they  are  to 
contribute  to  the  development  of  civic  intelligence,  provision 
must  be  made  in  the  elementary  schools,  in  the  secondary 
schools  and  in  the  colleges  for  thorough  courses  in  the  "co- 
operative functions  of  society,"  and  above  all  to  that  organiza- 
tion in  which  these  functions  are  concentrated  and  unified. 
In  fact  it  is  now  coming  to  be  recognized  that  instead  of  a  meagre 
allowance  of  a  week  or  two  here  or  there  in  the  school  curricu- 
lum civic  instruction  must  be  placed  on  a  par  with  such  subjects 
as  English  and  the  natural  sciences  and  be  given  prime  considera- 
tion in  the  making  of  school  programs.1  That  this  consideration 
is  already  being  given  to  the  subject  by  progressive  educators  is 
evidenced  in  the  interest  manifested  in  a  revised  and  vitalized 
study  of  social  affairs  under  the  designation  community  civics. 

3.  Community  Civics. 

The  study  of  the  constitution  manuals,  and  the  use  of  the  de- 
ductive method  have  been  slowly  giving  way  to  a  form  of  course 
commonly  referred  to  at  this  time  as  the  new  civics  or  com- 
munity civics.  The  new  civics  practically  reverses  the  method 
of  procedure  which  was  formerly  pursued.  Instead  of  starting 
with  officers  and  legal  duties  as  outlined  in  constitutions  and  in 
statutes,  the  study  begins  with  community  needs  and  the  meth- 
ods by  which  government  satisfies  these  needs.  It  is  based 
essentially  upon  the  theory  that  those  things  which  are  near  at 
home  are  of  more  vital  importance  and  should  receive  consider- 
ation prior  to  those  more  remote  and,  as  a  rule,  of  less  direct 

1  For  a  very  able  and  suggestive  discussion  of  the  function  which  the  public 
schools  should  perform  in  the  United  States  consult  Democracy's  High 
School  by  Principal  W.  D.  Lewis  in  the  Riverside  Educational  Monographs. 


6  THE  TEACHING  OF  GOVERNMENT 

significance.  The  new  civics  comprises  then  a  study  of  commu- 
nity functions  and  emphasizes  rather  the  physiology  of  govern- 
ment than  its  anatomy  or  framework.  It  begins  with  the  local 
environment — the  immediate  community  in  which  the  child 
lives  and  with  which  he  comes  in  daily  contact.  And  then  from 
village  or  city  activities  the  study  reaches  out  to  the  wider  func- 
tions of  state  and  nation.  The  analysis  of  what  the  govern- 
ment is  doing  to  protect  health,  life,  property  and  social  needs 
in  every  direction  becomes  more  important  than  constitutional 
provisions.  A  knowledge  and  appreciation  of  what  the  govern- 
ment of  a  community  is  accomplishing  to  satisfy  community 
needs,  and  government  activities  in  their  immediate  touch 
upon  the  citizen,  come  in  for  consideration  and  study. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  new  civics  does  not  necessarily  result 
in  a  neglect  of  the  study  of  constitutions  and  of  governmental 
forms.  All  of  the  essential  phases  of  organization  may  be  re- 
tained in  the  new  course.  Constitutions,  statutes,  officers  and 
their  duties  are  merely  approached  from  the  standpoint  of  the 
functions  which  are  being  performed  by  the  agents  of  govern- 
ment in  any  political  unit.  The  natural  steps  are,  first  to  raise 
the  question,  what  methods  are  devised  to  protect  the  health, 
the  life  and  the  property  of  the  community.  The  answer  to 
these  queries  will  lead,  secondly,  to  the  consideration  of  the 
functions  of  local  and  state  officers  as  well  as  to  the  services 
rendered  by  the  federal  government. 

Thus,  that  portion  which  is  of  real  value  in  the  earlier  form  of 
civil  government  is  retained.  To  be  sure,  some  minor  details 
are  necessarily  eliminated,  but  usually  those  which  have  no 
relation  to  citizenship,  and  it  will  be  no  loss  to  drop  them  from 
the  courses  now  given  in  our  public  schools.  Matters  of  detail 
such  as  the  names  of  officers,  the  salaries  received  and  the  statu- 
tory provisions  of  official  duties  give  but  little  indication  of  the 
part  performed  by  government  officials  and  they  can  be  dis- 
pensed with,  thus  saving  the  energy  of  memorizing  a  mass  of 


RECENT  PROGRESS  ^ 

petty  and  useless  stuff,  immediately  forgotten  when  the  course 
is  completed.  Such  facts  as  are  necessary  for  the  study  of 
government  functions  can  readily  be  rendered  available  in  a 
reference  manual  which  can  be  prepared  for  use  along  with  the 
text-book. 

It  is  community  civics  and  the  group  of  ideas  compre- 
hended therein  that  have  resulted  in  a  nationwide  movement 
to  reorganize  the  courses  in  government,  to  revise  the  methods 
of  study  and  to  vitalize  a  subject  which  has  heretofore  shown 
little  promise  of  value  either  to  the  individual  citizen  or  to  the 
community.  It  is  of  interest  to  consider  the  efforts  by  which 
instruction  in  government  is  being  revised  and  to  trace  the  in- 
troduction into  the  schools  of  courses  based  upon  the  new  con- 
tent and  revised  methods  of  instruction. 

II.  Efforts  to  Improve  the  Teaching  of  Government. 

In  considering  the  steps  which  have  been  taken  along  this 
line,  it  is  necessary  to  note  a  surprising  lack  of  interest  in  the 
subject  on  the  part  of  many  administrators  and  teachers  in  the 
public  schools.  The  plea  of  no  time  for  the  study  of  civics 
has  been  so  frequent  and  widespread  that  it  might  be  supposed 
that  the  public  schools  have  no  interest  in  nor  any  relation  what- 
ever, to  the  state,  its  organs,  activities  and  departments.  To 
quote  Dr.  George  Kerchensteiner,  "Schools  totally  ignored 
the  fact  that  while  the  economic  conditions  of  the  present  day 
require  a  technical  and  commercial  training  from  the  worker, 
the  social  conditions  imperatively  demand  for  him  a  civic  train- 
ing. In  a  word,  it  was  forgotten  that  civics  is  at  least  as  neces- 
sary an  element  in  the  syllabus  of  our  schools  as  are  drawing 
and  arithmetic."  1  In  contrast  with  this  opinion  it  has  been 
customary  to  dispose  of  the  subject  with  the  rather  typical 
comment, — "If  no  class  in  civil  government  can  be  organized, 
let  the  teacher  give  some  instruction  in  this  line  during  general 
1  "Hygiene,  Civics  and  Trade  History."  See  pp.  38-39. 


8        TEE  TEACHING  OF  GOVERNMENT 

exercises.  Let  us  strive  to  teach  an  intelligent  patriotism." 
There  was  time  for  Latin,  history,  geography,  geometry,  al- 
gebra, botany,  and  physics  and  for  a  number  of  other  no  less 
important  and  useful  branches  of  study,  but  the  common  reply 
of  many  of  those  who  prepared  school  programs  was  that  no 
separate  time  could  be  found  in  the  curriculum  for  the  study 
of  government. 

It  was  suggested  occasionally  that  the  public  school  itself 
and  all  that  it  is  undertaking  is  the  result  of  government  and 
that  school  administrators  were  inclined  to  ignore  this  fact. 
It  is  the  state  that  is  giving  life  and  being  to  the  public  school; 
it  is  the  money  of  the  state  secured  through  its  methods  of  taxa- 
tion that  keeps  the  school  going;  it  is  the  law  of  the  state  through 
which  the  school  performs  its  functions,  and  it  has  been  inti- 
mated that  the  school  could  not  refuse  to  give  some  considera- 
tion to  the  organization  which  brought  it  into  life  and  made 
possible  its  very  existence.  There  was  a  protest  that  some  time 
must  be  found  in  the  school  curriculum  for  the  study  of  that 
most  important  of  all  social  and  political  organizations — the 
state.  And  slowly  time  has  been  discovered.  First  a  few  weeks 
were  allowed,  then  a  few  weeks  more,  and  finally  the  importance 
of  further  study  resulted  in  extending  the  time  in  both  elemen- 
tary and  secondary  schools.  An  account  of  the  developing  ap- 
preciation of  the  vital  need  of  civic  instruction  is  to  be  found  in 
the  activity  of  the  great  national  organizations  interested  in  the 
reconstruction  of  our  educational  system  and  in  the  evidences 
of  a  recent  trend  toward  the  social  viewpoint  in  industrial  and 
political  affairs.  A  brief  survey  of  the  activities  of  each  of  these 
national  organizations  will  show  the  impetus  given  within  recent 
years  to  the  advancement  of  government  instruction. 

i.  National  Education  Association. 

The  effort  to  improve  instruction  in  the  various  fields  of  study 
in  the  secondary  and  elementary  schools  began  in  an  organized 


RECENT  PROGRESS  9 

way  through  the  interest  and  activities  of  the  National  Educa- 
tion Association.  To  be  sure,  the  improvement  of  other  subjects 
was  begun  very  much  earlier,  and  much  more  definite  and 
effective  results  have  been  secured  than  in  the  teaching  of 
civil  government.  Prior  to  1893  the  only  interest  manifested  in 
the  subject  of  civics  is  evidenced  in  an  occasional  address  rel- 
ative to  instruction  in  this  field.  A  definite  indication  of  an 
awakening  on  the  part  of  teachers  to  the  value  of  this  subject 
is  shown  in  the  Madison  conference  on  history,  civil  govern- 
ment, and  economics.  The  conference  was  held  in  1892.  The 
report  and  conclusions  of  the  conference  were  adopted  by  the 
committee  of  ten,  and  were  issued  by  the  Bureau  of  Education 
and  reprinted  later  by  the  American  Book  Company.  It  was 
in  this  conference  that  for  the  first  time  the  claims  of  the  social 
sciences  were  brought  to  the  attention  of  the  educators  of  the 
nation.  The  program  adopted  included  four  years  of  history 
for  the  grammar  school  and  four  years  for  the  high  school. 
While  the  chief  interest  and  emphasis  in  the  report  is  on  histpry, 
and  the  main  contribution  made  by  it  resulted  along  the  line 
of  the  improvement  of  history  instruction,  the  subjects  of  civil 
government  and  economics  also  received  some  attention.  On 
the  former  subject  the  report  of  the  committee  observed: 
"  While  they  are  of  opinion  that  political  economy  should  not 
be  taught  in  secondary  schools,  they  urge  that  in  connection 
with  United  States  history,  civil  government  and  commercial 
geography,  instruction  should  be  given  in  the  most  important 
economic  topics.  .  .  .  The  subject  of  civil  government  they 
would  associate  with  both  history  and  geography. 

"They  would  introduce  it  into  the  grammar  school  by  means 
of  oral  lessons,  and  into  the  high  school  by  means  of  a  text-book 
with  collateral  reading  and  oral  lessons.  In  the  high  school  they 
believe  that  the  study  of  civil  government  may  be  made  com- 
parative— that  is,  that  the  American  methods  may  be  compared 
with  foreign  systems." 


io  THE  TEACHING  OF  GOVERNMENT 

Later  the  Association  showed  its  interest  in  civics  in  the  re- 
port of  the  committee  of  twelve  on  rural  schools.  This  report 
goes  somewhat  further  in  its  recommendations  and  provides  for 
a  normal  training  course  with  one  half  year  of  United  States 
history  and  civil  government,  and  among  the  recommendations 
it  is  suggested  that  "the  introduction  of  such  studies  as  will 
have  a  tendency  to  connect  the  school  and  the  home,  especially 
those  having  direct  bearing  upon  the  everyday  life  of  the  com- 
munity, is  to  be  especially  commended."  This  brief  recommen- 
dation may  be  said  to  indicate  the  tendency  to  direct  atten- 
tion to  the  study  of  community  functions,  which  is  the  great 
feature  of  the  new  civics.  With  the  exception  of  an  occasional 
place  on  the  annual  program  and  some  incidental  discussions 
fostered  by  the  Association,  the  subject  of  civics  received  very 
little  consideration  for  a  period  of  more  than  ten  years.  It  was 
not  until  the  committee  on  articulation  of  high  school  and  col- 
lege was  appointed  and  its  report  to  the  Association  in  July, 
1911,  was  rendered,  that  civics  again  received  serious  considera- 
tion. The  committee,  as  is  well  known,  recommended  that  the 
satisfactory  completion  of  a  well-planned  high  school  course 
should  be  accepted  as  preparation  for  college.  In  the  definition 
of  a  well-planned  high  school  course,  it  was  proposed  that  there 
should  be  included  at  least  three  units  of  English,  one  unit  of 
social  science  (including  history),  and  one  unit  of  natural 
science.  With  regard  to  the  work  in  social  science,  it  was  recom- 
mended: (i)  that  history  should  always  be  taught  so  as  to  func- 
tion in  a  better  understanding  of  modern  events  and  current 
movements;  (2)  that  economics  should  be  encouraged  because 
economic  discussions  are  paramount,  and  ignorance  of  economic 
principles  is  appalling;  and  (3)  that  every  high  school  student 
should  be  given  a  practical  knowledge  of  affairs  in  his  own 
community,  political,  industrial  and  philanthropic,  of  the  basic 
principles  of  state  and  national  politics,  and  of  movements  for 
social  reform  and  international  peace. 


RECENT  PROGRESS  n 

A  more  recent  effort  to  aid  in  the  process  of  reorganization  of 
courses  in  civics  has  been  that  of  the  national  commission 
chosen  several  years  ago  for  the  purpose  of  reorganizing  the 
entire  curriculum  of  secondary  schools.  Appointed  as  an  out- 
growth of  the  movement  on  articulation  between  high  school 
and  college,  this  committee  has  arranged  for  a  subcommittee 
on  social  studies,  which  is  working  in  cooperation  with  the 
Bureau  of  Education  and  has  presented  a  preliminary  report 
in  which  the  following  proposed  outline  for  five  units  of  social 
studies  is  offered: 

1.  Community  Civics  and  Survey  of  Vocations. 

2.  European  History  to  1600  or  1700  (including  English  and 
Colonial  Amerian  History). 

3.  European  History  since  1600  or  1700  (including  contem- 
porary civilization). 

4.  United    States    History  since    1760    (including    current 
events). 

5.  Economics  and  Civic  Theory  and  Practice. 

Recently  this  committee  has  aided  in  the  preparation  of  a 
syllabus  for  community  civics  to  be  used  in  the  junior  high  school, 
and  anticipates  the  preparation  of  a  similar  syllabus  for  an  ad- 
vanced course  in  social  science  for  fourth  year  high  school.  As 
the  work  is  carried  on  with  the  cooperation  of  the  Bureau  of 
Education  and  the  National  Education  Association,  its  conclu- 
sions and  recommendations  will  have  a  great  influence  upon  the 
public  schools,  and  consequently  upon  the  entire  educational 
system  of  the  country. 

2.  American  Historical  Association. 

One  of  the  first  organizations  to  offer  suggestions  relative 
to  the  teaching  of  civics  as  well  as  that  of  history  was  the 
American  Historical  Association.  The  recommendations  of 
the  Association  are  embodied  in  the  following  reports:  (a) 
Report  of  Committee  of  Seven,  1898;  (b)  Report  of  the  Com- 


12  THE  TEACHING  OF  GOVERNMENT 

mittee  of  Eight,  1909;  (c)  Report  of  the  Committee  of  Five, 
1911. 

It  has  already  been  indicated  that  the  first  step  toward  the 
improvement  of  the  teaching  of  history  and  government  was 
taken  in  connection  with  the  Madison  Conference  which  was 
largely  directed  by  leaders  interested  in  the  subject  of  history. 
The  report  of  this  Conference  was  a  mere  prelude  to  the  more 
systematic  and  effective  work  begun  and  completed  through  a 
series  of  very  active  committees  appointed  by  the  Association. 

(a)  Report  of  Committee  of  Seven. 

One  of  the  most  important  committees  covering  the  field  of 
history  was  the  committee  of  seven  appointed  by  the  American 
Historical  Association  in  1896  and  rendering  its  report  in  1898. 
The  recommendations  included  therein  are  familiar  to  all 
secondary  school  teachers  and  administrators.  It  is  only  neces- 
sary to  note  in  passing  the  chief  conclusions  of  the  committee: 
a  full  four  years'  course  of  history  and  civil  government  is 
recommended  in  the  following  arrangement:  first  year,  ancient 
history;  second  year,  mediaeval  and  modern  European  history; 
third  year,  English  history;  fourth  year,  American  history  and 
civil  government. 

This  report  has  been  widely  accepted  and  followed  in  planning 
the  programs  of  secondary  schools.  It  has  resulted  in  a  great 
increase  in  the  tune  given  to  history  and  in  a  marked  improve- 
ment of  methods  of  teaching.  Its  effect  upon  the  teaching  of 
civics  has  been  rather  indirect  and  incidental,  but  it  has  un- 
doubtedly encouraged  the  tendency  to  combine  civil  govern- 
ment with  American  history  and  has  consequently  tended  to 
delay  somewhat  the  movement  favorable  to  the  introduction 
of  the  study  of  civics  as  a  separate  and  independent  course. 
In  so  far  as  the  committee  report  emphasized  the  close  relation 
between  history  and  civics  and  provided  the  basis  for  civics 
in  the  study  of  the  development  of  English  and  American  hi- 


RECENT  PROGRESS  13 

stitutions,  the  effect  has  been  salutary.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
report  of  the  committee  has  been  frequently  interpreted  in  such 
a  way  as  to  be  detrimental  to  the  development  of  anything  like 
an  effective  course  in  civics.  Where  these  recommendations 
were  carried  out  so  as  to  bring  about  the  introduction  of  a  year's 
course  in  American  history,  with  only  an  incidental  considera- 
tion to  the  problems  of  government  based  usually  upon  the 
supplementary  reading  of  some  text  on  civil  government,  the 
effect  of  the  report  has  not  been  favorable  to  the  development 
of  a  proper  type  of  civic  instruction.  In  any  comment  on  the 
report  of  this  and  other  committees  of  the  American  Historical 
Association,  it  must  always  be  remembered  that  these  commit- 
tees were  primarily  interested  in  the  study  of  history  and  they 
could  not  be  expected  to  give  special  consideration  and  emphasis 
to  instruction  in  government.  It  remains  for  those  interested 
and  engaged  in  the  teaching  of  government  to  render  similar 
aid  and  direction  to  teachers. 

(6)  The  Committee  of  Eight. 

In  the  report  of  the  committee  of  eight  relative  to  elementary 
school  instruction  the  subject  of  civics  also  received  considera- 
tion. The  following  extracts  from  the  report  suggest  the  point 
of  view  of  the  committee: 

We  believe  that  elementary  civics  should  permeate  the  entire  school 
life  of  the  child.  In  the  early  grades  the  most  effective  features  of 
this  instruction  will  be  directly  connected  with  the  teaching  of  regular 
subjects  in  the  course  of  study.  Through  story,  poem,  and  song, 
there  is  the  quickening  of  those  emotions  which  influence  civic  life. 
The  works  and  biographies  of  great  men  furnish  many  opportunities 
for  incidental  instruction  in  civics.  The  elements  of  geography  serve 
to  emphasize  the  interdependence  of  men — the  very  earliest  lesson 
in  civic  instruction.  A  study  of  pictures  and  architecture  arouses  the 
desire  for  civic  beauty  and  orderliness. 

It  is  recommended  that  civics  and  history  should,  so  far  as  possi- 
ble, be  taught  as  allied  subjects  with  the  emphasis  at  one  time  upon 
history  and  at  another  time  upon  present  civics.  Along  with  the 


14  THE  TEACHING  OF  GOVERNMENT 

incidental  instruction  in  civics,  there  should  be  given  suitable  lessons 
in  the  present-day  political  activities  connected  with  the  life  of  the 
child.  He  should  gradually  come  to  realize  that  each  political  unit, 
town,  city,  state,  nation,  is  a  group  of  people  organized  in  such  a 
manner  as  to  do  for  the  members  of  that  group  those  kinds  of  work 
which  all  need  to  have  done. 

The  special  aim  in  the  teaching  of  civics  therefore  should  be  to  help 
the  child  realize  himself  as  a  member  of  each  political  group  that  does 
work  for  him.  .  .  . 

The  committee  is  of  the  unanimous  opinion  that  the  best  results 
can  be  secured  in  the  teaching  of  government  in  the  seventh  and  eighth 
grades  when  pupils  are  assigned  definite  readings  in  a  good  text  on 
civics.  Many  of  these  assignments  should  accompany  the  regular 
lessons  in  history.  Others  would  be  taken  more  advantageously  as 
separate  lessons,  for  which  provision  should  be  made  in  the  program. 

Stated  approximately,  the  time  to  be  given  civics  should  be  at 
least  twenty  minutes  a  week  for  a  half  year  in  grades  five  and  six; 
forty  minutes  in  grade  seven,  and  sixty  minutes  in  grade  eight. 

The  above  suggestions  are  commendable  and  it  is  noteworthy 
that  in  a  complete  program  for  elementary  schools  it  is  only 
necessary  that  the  brief  recommendations  of  this  committee  be 
expanded  and  made  more  specific  with  full  instructions,  devices 
and  available  material,  and  that  provision  be  made  for  the  be- 
ginning of  civic  instruction  in  the  grades  preceding  the  fifth. 

(c)  The  Committee  of  Five. 

On  account  of  certain  criticisms  of  the  report  of  the  committee 
of  seven  and  the  growing  need  of  some  slight  revisions,  a  second 
committee  was  appointed  in  1907  and  rendered  its  report  in  1911. 
Considerable  attention  was  given  to  the  relation  between  United 
States  history  and  civil  government. 

After  discussing  briefly  the  relation  of  history  and  govern- 
ment the  committee  concluded  that 

in  light  of  all  the  facts  we  can  gather  we  are  justified,  probably,  in 
saying  that  there  is  an  undoubted  desire  on  the  part  of  many  teachers 
to  have  the  opportunity  to  give  a  separate  course  in  government, 


RECENT  PROGRESS  15 

especially  for  the  purpose  of  dwelling  on  certain  phases  of  actual 
politics  and  government  that  cannot  be  readily  and  adequately  dis- 
cussed in  connection  with  American  history  ...  we  desire  to  say 
clearly  that  we  do  not  think  that  the  two  subjects,  despite  their  in- 
terpendence,  should  be  so  taught  as  to  crowd  out  government  or  give 
insufficient  time  for  its  proper  study.  More  and  more  as  the  days 
go  by  it  becomes  plain  that  the  schools  have  the  clear  duty  of  giving 
full  instruction  on  the  essentials  of  American  government  and  prac- 
tical politics.  We  have  no  desire  to  underestimate  this  need  and  this 
duty. 

The  committee  thinks,  however,  that  much  that  is  commonly 
called  government  can  best  be  taught  in  connection  with  his- 
tory. On  the  other  hand,  it  is  admitted  that  such  subjects  as 
the  state  constitutional  system,  local  government,  party  or- 
ganization and  party  machinery  cannot  be  adequately  treated 
in  connection  with  history  and  that  these  will  require  separate 
and  independent  consideration.  For  a  separate  course  the  sug- 
gestion is  offered  that 

the  distribution  of  time  between  government  and  history  in  the 
fourth  year  should,  we  believe,  be  in  some  such  ratio  as  this — two- 
fifths  of  the  time  may  be  given  to  separate  work  in  government  and 
three-fifths  to  the  course  in  history.  This  arrangement  will  not  appear 
to  all  teachers  as  ideal;  some  teachers  will  desire  more  time  for  history, 
others  more  time  for  government.  But  on  the  whole  the  distribution 
appears  to  be  the  best  that  can  be  proposed,  and  we  should  be  the 
last  to  assert  that  no  teacher  should  modify  any  adjustment  or  ar- 
rangement to  suit  his  own  needs  and  inclinations,  if  they  are  based 
on  an  intelligent  regard  for  the  subject  and  his  pupils.  Many  teachers 
will  prefer  to  give  the  civil  government  separately  after  the  history 
work  is  concluded.  But  while  this  plan  may  have  its  advantages  in 
some  respects,  the  continuous  study  of  government  throughout  the 
year  side  by  side  with  history  has  also  advantages  that  merit  consider- 
ation. Where  the  study  of  government  extends  through  the  whole 
year,  there  are  many  opportunities  for  concrete  illustrations  and  even 
learning  by  observation,  which  are  not  allowed  in  a  shorter  time: 
elections  are  held;  municipal  problems  arise  and  are  discussed  in  the 
newspapers;  important  appointments  to  office  are  announced;  the 


16  THE  TEACHING  OF  GOVERNMENT 

usual  presidential  message  appears.  These  advantages  will  induce 
many  teachers  to  prefer  the  system  of  carrying  government  through 
the  year  side  by  side  with  history. 

By  the  time  this  report  was  presented  the  movement  in  favor 
of  greater  time  and  attention  to  the  study  of  civics  was  well 
under  way  and  naturally  the  recognition  of  the  trend  of  the  times 
is  shown  in  the  recommendation  that  the  year's  work  in  American 
history  and  civil  government  be  subdivided  on  the  basis  of  3-5 
to  history  and  2-5  to  civil  government.  Although  the  recom- 
mendation has  been  made  rather  recently,  there  are  many  in- 
dications that  the  suggestion  has  been  followed  by  superinten- 
dents and  principals.  The  report  scarcely  goes  far  enough  to 
suit  teachers  especially  interested  in  the  field  of  civics,  nor  for 
that  matter,  many  others  who  have  an  incidental  interest  in  the 
subject,  but  a  long  step  forward  was  taken  in  recognizing  the 
growing  demands  for  the  study  of  modern  political  organiza- 
tions and  their  functions. 

History  Teachers'  Associations. 

Among  those  who  have  aided  in  improving  the  teaching  of 
civics  are  to  be  found  some  of  the  active  members  of  the  teachers' 
associations,  including  the  associations  of  New  England,  the 
Middle  States  and  Maryland,  the  Mississippi  Valley,  and  the 
Pacific  States, — all  of  which  have  at  various  times  given  con- 
siderable attention  to  the  discussion  of  methods  of  instruction 
in  government.  The  most  effective  work  has  been  done  by  the 
New  England  History  Teachers'  Association  and  by  the  Middle 
States  Association.  The  first  of  these  has  not  only  considered 
the  matter  of  civics  in  many  of  its  meetings,  but  also  through  a 
special  committee  it  has  prepared  an  outline  for  teachers  which 
has  been  published  as  a  volume  entitled,  "An  Outline  of  the 
Study  of  American  Civil  Government,"  with  special  reference 
to  training  for  citizenship.  The  outline  presents  a  comprehen- 
sive survey  of  topics  and  material  for  study  and  adds  a  list  of 


RECENT  PROGRESS  17 

select  references  for  the  study  of  governmental  organizations 
and  for  certain  principles  of  government.  It  is  one  of  the  most 
useful  guides  now  available  for  teachers. 

As  an  evidence  of  the  modern  trend  of  discussion  may  be 
cited  in  particular  the  session  devoted  to  this  subject  by  the 
Association  of  the  Middle  States  and  Maryland  at  Albany  in 
November,  1913,  in  which  "The  Teaching  of  Civics  in  the  Ele- 
mentary Schools  "  was  discussed  by  J.  Lynn  Barnard;  "Civics  in 
the  High  School  and  Training  for  Citizenship"  by  James  Sulli- 
van; "Training  for  Citizenship  from  the  Standpoint  of  Colleges 
and  Universities  "  by  Charles  A.  Beard.  At  the  close  of  the 
conference  the  following  resolutions  were  unanimously  adopted: 

How  SHALL  SCHOOLS  TRAIN  FOR  CITIZENSHIP? 

Elementary  and  Secondary  Schools. 

1.  The  order  of  teaching  should  be  from  the  functions  to  the  ma- 
chinery of  government,  with  special  emphasis  on  function  rather  than 
machinery. 

2.  The  work  should  be  based  on  the  pupils'  experience  and  imme- 
diate surroundings. 

3.  There  should  be  a  continual  connection  of  civics  with  current 
events,  and  the  student  should  be  made  to  form  the  habit  of  keeping 
up  with  the  news. 

4.  The  keynote  of  the  course  should  be  the  obligation  of  the  citi- 
zen to  serve  the  community. 

5.  Means  should  be  found  for  the  actual  participation  of  the  stu- 
dents in  civic  activities.    This  means  more  than  the  usual  visits  to 
courts  and  public  buildings.     They  should  do  something  to  help, 
either  as  individuals  or  through  civic  associations. 

6.  Civic  training  should  be  secured  through  the  organization  and 
discipline  of  the  school.    If  the  organization  is  such  as  to  develop 
in  the  pupils  personal  responsibility,  initiative,  a  social  conscience, 
and  high  ideals  of  conduct,  the  best  civic  lesson  has  been  learned. 

7.  Civics  should  be  given  a  place  of  its  own  separate  from  history. 

8.  This  association  should  take  steps  to  secure  separate  examina- 
tions for  United  States  history  and  civics  and  examination  questions 
for  civics  which  call  for  something  besides  a  knowledge  of  the  machin- 
ery of  government. 


i8  THE  TEACHING  OF  GOVERNMENT 

3.  National  Municipal  League. 

Another  organization  which  has  been  interested  and  active  in 
the  movement  to  improve  the  teaching  of  government  and  civics 
in  the  schools  is  the  National  Municipal  League.  In  fact,  this 
organization  was  one  of  the  first  to  enter  the  field  and  some 
effective  results  have  been  accomplished  particularly  along  the 
line  of  the  teaching  of  municipal  government.  Various  com- 
mittees have  been  appointed  and  reports  presented  dealing  with 
all  phases  of  civic  instruction.  The  results  of  these  committees 
along  with  the  papers  and  discussions  relating  thereto  are  in- 
cluded in  the  reports  of  the  Conferences  on  Good  City  Govern- 
ment published  by  the  League  and  in  the  recent  issues  of  the 
"  National  Municipal  Review."  The  first  report  of  the  com- 
mittee on  instruction  in  municipal  government  in  American  col- 
leges was  presented  in  1901  and  includes  the  results  of  a  ques- 
tionnaire sent  to  several  hundred  institutions  covering  the  work 
offered  along  the  lines  of  government  and  law.  A  list  of  works 
bearing  on  the  general  subject  of  city  government  was  also  of- 
fered, and  the  tendency  to  improve  courses  in  municipal  govern- 
ment in  the  colleges  was  very  strongly  commended.  James  T. 
Young  discussed  university  instruction  in  municipal  government 
and  two  outlines  of  courses  on  municipal  government  were 
presented,  one  prepared  by  L.  S.  Rowe  of  the  University  of 
Pennsylvania,  the  other  by  R.  C.  Brooks  of  Cornell  University. 
These  outlines  indicate  the  effort  made  at  this  time  to  sys- 
tematize and  render  effective  the  instruction  in  municipal  gov- 
ernment. 

The  continuance  of  interest  is  shown  in  a  further  discussion 
of  the  teaching  of  municipal  government  in  American  educa- 
tional institutions  at  the  annual  meeting  for  1902,  and  in  the 
presentation  of  suggestions  for  courses  on  municipal  government. 
Again  in  1903  the  subject  was  discussed  by  John  A.  Fairlie, 
who  offered  the  following  conclusions  relative  to  courses  in  civil 
government:  first,  simple  lessons  in  the  duties  of  public  agents, 


RECENT  PROGRESS  19 

in  the  elementary  schools;  second,  the  systematic  study  of  one 
city,  in  high  schools  and  academies;  third,  a  comparative 
study  of  American  municipal  government,  as  a  part  of  a  general 
study  of  government  in  colleges  and  universities;  fourth,  a 
comprehensive  study  of  municipal  government  for  advanced 
students  in  the  universities,  leading  to  fifth,  the  technical  courses 
in  the  various  professional  departments  in  the  universities. 
His  valuable  paper  was  followed  by  a  discussion  of  the  teaching 
of  municipal  government  in  the  high  schools  of  our  large  cities. 
Wilson  L.  Gill  of  Philadelphia  presented  an  account  of  the 
School  City  which  is  now  well  known  as  one  of  the  special  de- 
vices to  increase  interest  in  practical  civic  affairs.  This  address 
contains  a  code  of  laws  for  the  School  City,  and  includes  the 
comment  that  "public  schools  and  colleges,  boasted  bulwarks 
of  our  liberties,  have  unwittingly  but  ceaselessly  nursed  the 
spirit  of  monarchy." 

In  1904  a  second  report  on  university  and  collegiate  research 
in  municipal  government  was  presented.  In  the  course  of  the 
report  it  was  observed  that  "there  has  been  no  searching 
analysis  of  the  civic  usefulness  of  the  college  bred  man,"  and 
that  the  leading  subjects  of  the  public  schools  "  do  not  contrib- 
ute toward  the  development  of  civic  instincts,  nor  to  the 
strengthening  of  civic  effort."  At  the  same  session  a  tentative 
program  for  the  teaching  of  municipal  government  and  civics  in 
the  elementary  schools  was  offered.  A  further  discussion  of  the 
School  City  and  the  results  of  another  committee,  were  submitted 
under  the  title,  "Instruction  in  Modern  Government"  at  the 
annual  session  in  1905.  The  report  contained  an  outline  of  a 
course  in  municipal  government  for  high  schools.  In  1905 
Frederick  L.  Luqueer  offered  a  syllabus  for  civics  in  the  grades 
and  Jesse  B.  Davis  reported  on  a  high  school  program,  with  the 
observation  that  "the  committee  does  not  favor  the  teaching 
of  civics  or  municipal  government  in  the  earlier  years  of  the  high 
school  course,  but  would  recommend  the  plan  of  the  committee 


20  THE  TEACHING  OF  GOVERNMENT 

of  seven  on  the  teaching  of  history,  in  which  civics  is  a  part  of 
the  unit  in  American  history." 

After  several  years  the  status  of  instruction  in  municipal 
government  in  the  universities  and  colleges  was  again  discussed 
by  a  committee  of  which  William  Bennett  Munro  was  chairman 
in  a  report  which  contains  a  strong  presentation  of  the  impor- 
tance and  task  of  the  teacher  of  political  science,  and  the  aim 
and  purpose  of  instruction  in  municipal  government.  A  further 
report  bringing  the  tables  and  data  up  to  1914  was  prepared  on 
behalf  of  the  committee  by  Professor  Munro  and  published  in 
the  "  National  Municipal  Review."  The  efforts  of  the  League 
along  the  line  of  improving  the  teaching  of  government  in  the 
schools  has  culminated  in  the  appointment  of  a  committee  on 
Civic  Education.  This  committee  rendered  a  preliminary  re- 
port at  Toronto  in  1913  and  continued  its  work  under  the  leader- 
ship of  Arthur  W.  Dunn,  who  has  recently  become  associ- 
ated with  the  Bureau  of  Education  as  special  agent  in  Civic 
Education.  The  plan  under  which  the  work  is  being  conducted 
is  thus  described  by  Mr.  Dunn  in  a  circular  issued  under  the 
direction  of  the  Bureau  of  Education: 

With  the  cooperation  of  the  National  Municipal  League  and  other 
organizations  long  interested  in  the  problem  of  education  for  citizen- 
ship, the  United  States  Bureau  of  Education  is  undertaking  a  compre- 
hensive study  of  the  whole  problem  of  civic  education.  .  .  . 

In  this  field  of  activity  the  government  bureau  of  education  hopes 
to  do  officially  and  systematically  what  has  heretofore  been  attempted 
by  a  number  of  organizations  working  independently.  Many  civic 
associations  throughout  the  United  States  have  been  agitating  in 
behalf  of  education  for  citizenship;  valuable  results  have  been  ob- 
tained; and  many  communities  have  made  important  experiments  in 
improving  citizenship  through  the  schools  and  through  other  agencies. 
The  Bureau  will  seek  to  coordinate  these  hitherto  separate  efforts; 
to  bring  cooperation  where  independent  action  has  prevailed;  to 
make  known  everywhere  the  results  of  civic  education  so  far  accom- 
plished; and  to  formulate  a  constructive  plan  for  definite  work  in  this 
important  field. 


RECENT  PROGRESS  21 

In  announcing  the  Bureau's  new  work  Commissioner  Claxton 
points  out  that  in  the  larger  sense  all  education  is  really  educa- 
tion for  citizenship;  that  not  only  is  citizenship  training  co- 
extensive with  effective  education  in  general,  but  that  "the 
final  justification  of  public  taxation  for  public  education  lies  in 
the  training  of  young  people  for  citizenship."  The  work  already 
accomplished  through  the  agency  of  the  United  States  Bureau 
of  Education  in  the  publication  of  bulletins  and  in  rendering 
assistance  to  schools  in  reorganizing  courses  is  one  of  the  most 
encouraging  evidences  of  increasing  interest  in  government 
instruction.1 

4.  American  Political  Science  Association, 
(a)  Committee  of  Five. 

No  systematic  effort  was  made  by  teachers  of  government 
toward  the  improvement  of  instruction  until  the  formation  of 
the  American  Political  Science  Association  in  Baltimore  in  1902 
and  1903.  At  the  meetings  of  this  Association  each  year  papers 
were  offered  which  have  proved  of  special  interest  and  value 
to  teachers.  At  the  meeting  of  the  Association  in  1903  a  sec- 
tion was  devoted  to  instruction  in  government  and  a  paper  was 
presented  by  William  A.  Schaper  of  the  University  of  Minne- 
sota on  the  subject,  "What  do  our  students  know  about  Ameri- 
can government  before  taking  college  courses  in  political  science?  " 
The  interest  created  by  this  discussion  resulted  in  the  formation 
of  a  committee  of  three  which  was  appointed  at  the  meeting  of 
the  Association  in  Providence  in  the  following  year.  The  mem- 
bers originally  appointed  were:  William  A.  Schaper,  University 
of  Minnesota;  Isidor  Loeb,  University  of  Missouri,  and  Paul 

5.  Reinsch,  University  of  Wisconsin.     The  following  year  at 
Madison  the  committee  was  increased  to  five  by  the  addition 
of  James  A.  James  of  Northwestern  University  and  James 
Sullivan  of  Brooklyn,  N.  Y.    A  very  thorough  investigation  of 

1  See  Civic  Education  Series  and  Bulletins  No.  41-1913;  17-1915;  23-1915. 


22  THE   TEACHING  OF  GOVERNMENT 

the  entire  field  of  secondary  school  instruction  was  made  by  the 
committee,  and  its  report  marks  one  of  the  greatest  steps  for- 
ward in  the  way  of  bringing  to  the  attention  of  teachers  the 
necessity  of  more  time  and  better  instruction  in  this  subject. 
To  quote  from  the  report: 

Is  it  not  a  curious  fact  that  though  our  schools  are  largely  institu- 
ted, supported  and  operated  by  the  government,  yet  the  study  of 
American  government  in  the  schools  and  colleges  is  the  last  subject 
to  receive  adequate  attention?  The  results  of  the  neglect  of  this 
important  branch  of  study  in  our  educational  institutions  can  easily 
be  seen  in  the  general  unfitness  of  men  who  have  entered  a  political 
career,  so  that  now  the  name  of  statesman  is  often  used  as  a  term  of 
reproach,  and  the  public  service  is  weak,  except  in  a  few  conspicuous 
instances.  Are  the  schools  perhaps  to  blame  for  the  lack  of  interest 
in  politics  shown  by  our  educated  men  until  the  recent  exposures 
arrested  the  attention  of  the  entire  nation? 

We  think  the  best  place  to  begin  the  work  of  regeneration  and  re- 
form is  in  the  American  secondary  schools  and  colleges.  Here  we  find 
the  judges,  legislators,  diplomats,  politicians  and  office-seekers  of  the 
future  in  the  making.  Here  are  the  future  citizens  too,  in  their  most 
impressionable  years,  in  the  years  when  the  teacher  has  their  attention. 

The  inquiry  of  the  committee  centered  about  five  main 
features: 

1.  Number  of  students  enrolled  and  the  time  given  to  the 
subject. 

2.  The  nature  of  the  course  and  the  plan  of  instruction. 

3.  The  teacher. 

4.  The  text-book. 

5.  The  school  library. 

The  report  dealt  with  the  important  phases  of  civic  instruction 
in  secondary  schools.  The  recommendations  offered  are  as 
follows: l 

1  This  entire  report  is  especially  valuable  to  teachers  of  government.  Only 
a  condensed  statement  with  a  few  extracts  can  be  given  here.  The  report 
is  in  the  volume  containing  the  Proceedings  of  the  American  Political  Science 
Association  for  1908. 


RECENT  PROGRESS  23 

A.  Elementary  Schools. 

The  committee  recommends  that  the  discussion  of  the  simple  and 
readily  observable  functions  and  organs  of  local  government  be 
introduced  into  all  the  grades  beginning  not  later  than  the  fifth.  The 
early  instruction  should  take  the  form  of  observations  by  the  class 
under  direction  of  the  teacher,  talks  or  readings  by  the  teacher,  in- 
tended to  add  to  the  pupils'  common  stock  of  information,  accounts 
of  happenings  and  experiences,  etc.  In  the  eighth  grade  more  formal 
instruction  in  local,  state  and  national  government  should  be  given 
using  an  elementary  text  and  some  reference  books.  This  work 
might  well  occupy  the  time  of  a  subject  for  one-half  of  the  eighth 
year.  The  emphasis  in  the  grammar  grade  work  on  government 
should  be  on  local  and  State  governments  and  should  deal  with  actual 
projects,  activities  and  methods  of  doing  things  rather  than  consist 
of  a  mere  collection  of  lists  of  officers  and  their  salaries  or  an  analysis 
of  the  constitution.  The  eighth  grade  classes  can  profitably  be  taken 
by  the  teacher  to  observe  a  session  of  a  local  court,  city  council,  con- 
vention or  polling  place.  Simple  rules  of  parliamentary  procedure 
can  be  explained  and  practiced. 

For  this  work  the  essential  thing  is  a  teacher  who  understands  and 
appreciates  the  subject  and  knows  the  community.  The  teacher 
needs  a  small  collection  of  well  chosen  books,  some  current  maga- 
zines and  newspapers  and  the  latest  local  official  reports  and 
bulletins. 

B.  High  Schools. 

In  any  system  of  schools  where  the  subject  has  been  properly 
treated  in  the  grades,  it  is  a  simple  task  to  plan  the  work  for  the  high 
school.  American  government  should  follow  upon  the  work  in  his- 
tory and  should  be  a  required  study  to  occupy  at  least  five  recitations 
per  week  for  one-half  of  the  fourth  year,  or  three  recitations  per  week 
for  that  entire  year.  This  is  the  minimum  time  which  should  be  given 
to  the  subject.  Some  high  schools  are  now  devoting  a  full  year  to  it 
with  profit. 

In  case  the  subject  has  not  been  taught  in  the  grades,  and  especially 
in  towns  where  many  boys  drop  out  of  the  high  school  before  reach- 
ing the  fourth  year,  it  is  highly  desirable  to  offer  an  elementary  course 
in  government  in  the  first  or  second  years,  so  as  to  place  it  within 
reach  of  the  greatest  possible  number.  In  the  larger  city  high  schools 
this  elementary  course  can  be  offered  as  an  additional  elective  with- 
out serious  inconvenience. 


24  THE  TEACHING  OF  GOVERNMENT 

There  may  be  wide  differences  of  opinion  as  to  what  constitutes 
an  education,  but  surely  these  three  things  are  essential: 

A  reasonable  facility  'in  the  use  of  our  country's  language,  including 
an  acquaintance  with  its  best  literature;  a  reasonable  comprehension 
of  the  practical  workings  of  our  country's  government;  and  a  fair 
understanding  of  its  past  history. 

There  are  two  methods  of  presenting  the  subject:  one  begins  with 
the  local  government  near  at  hand  and  proceeds  to  the  study  of  the 
state  and  then  to  the  national  government.  The  other  begins  with 
the  national  government  and  proceeds  to  the  state  and  local.  In  a 
high  school  course  either  plan  may  be  adopted.  If  the  school  is  situ- 
ated in  one  of  the  older  commonwealths,  the  first  plan  seems  more 
logical  and  natural,  while  if  situated  in  one  of  the  newer  states,  ad- 
mitted long  after  the  formation  of  the  union,  and  governed  mean- 
while as  a  territory  under  acts  of  congress,  the  second  plan  may  for 
an  equally  good  reason  be  adopted. 

In  any  case,  the  emphasis  should  be  placed  on  the  government 
of  the  locality,  especially  of  the  city,  the  town  and  the  state  with 
which  the  citizens  come  in  contact  most  frequently.  It  is  the  local 
and  state  governments  which  largely  determine  the  conditions  under 
which  we  live.  The  attention  of  the  future  citizens  should  be  directed, 
therefore,  primarily  to  a  study  of  their  organization  and  their  problems, 
rather  than  to  the  national  government  as  the  text-books  have  done 
in  the  past. 


C.  Specially  Trained  Teachers. 

The  greatest  need  to-day  is  more  teachers  especially  trained  in 
political  science.  The  practice  of  attaching  the  subject  of  govern- 
ment to  the  duties  of  any  high  school  teacher  on  the  force,  whose 
time  is  not  fully  taken  up  with  a  multitude  of  other  things,  is  univer- 
sally condemned. 


D.  College  Entrance. 

The  entrance  conditions  of  every  university  should  allow  credit 
for  at  least  one-half  to  one  unit  of  American  Government.  Where 
entrance  examinations  are  given  the  questions  should  be  so  framed 
as  to  test,  not  merely  memory  work,  but  also  the  understanding  of 
the  actual  workings  of  governmental  organs  and  information  on  cur- 
rent public  questions. 


RECENT  PROGRESS  25 

E.  The  Teacher's  Training. 

Another  matter  of  vital  importance  is  the  proper  training  of  teach- 
ers of  government.  The  subject  should  receive  its  due  proportion 
of  time  in  the  training  schools  for  teachers  and  in  teachers'  institutes. 
A  number  of  states  now  make  a  knowledge  of  the  subject  an  essential 
requirement  in  qualifying  for  any  teaching  position  in  all  the  public 
schools.  Such  a  provision  in  the  law  regulating  the  qualification  of 
teachers  is  reasonable  and  is  a  very  direct  way  of  stimulating  instruc- 
tion in  the  subject.1 

F.  The  Library  for  Government. 

Every  high  school  whether  large  or  small,  should  have  as  a  part 
of  its  equipment  a  collection  of  books,  reports,  documents,  current 
literature  and  legal  forms  for  the  study  of  government.  Some  of  this 
material  is  primarily  for  the  use  of  the  teacher.  No  teacher  can  hope 
to  keep  up  in  this  subject  who  does  not  follow  the  current  discussions, 
public  acts,  messages  and  reports  concerning  the  actual  doings  of 
government  departments,  officials,  committees  and  political  parties. 

G.  Observations  of  Actual  Government. 

Much  interest  can  be  aroused  and  the  hazy  impressions  about  gov- 
ernment can  be  made  clear  and  definite  by  occasionally  witnessing 
the  procedure  of  government  bodies  and  by  encouraging  the  students 
to  follow  the  actual  workings  of  government  by  reading  the  news- 
papers and  magazines. 

(b)  Committee  of  Seven. 

About  five  years  after  the  appearance  of  this  report  it  seemed 
advisable  to  the  officers  of  the  American  Political  Science  Asso- 
ciation to  constitute  a  new  committee  to  investigate  and  report 
upon  changes  in  the  secondary  school  field  as  well  as  to  make 
further  inquiries  along  lines  not  comprehended  within  the  scope 
of  the  committee  of  five.  As  a  consequence  it  was  voted  at  the 
annual  business  meeting  of  the  Association  held  in  Buffalo, 
December,  1911,  "that  a  committee  of  seven  members  be 
appointed  to  consider  the  methods  of  teaching  and  studying 
government  now  pursued  in  American  schools,  colleges  and 

1  The  committee  also  made  some  useful  suggestions  as  to  text-books,  see 
Proceedings,  1908,  p.  255. 


26  THE  TEACHING  OF  GOVERNMENT 

universities,  and  to  suggest  means  of  enlarging  and  improving 
such  instruction."  The  nature  and  scope  of  the  work  undertaken 
by  this  committee  is  indicated  in  the  ensuing  report. 

(c)  Committee  on  Practical  Training  for  Public  Service.     . 

To  further  extend  the  influence  of  the  educational  efforts  of 
the  Association  there  was  constituted  at  the  Boston  meeting 
in  1913  a  committee  of  five  with  a  view  (i)  to  examine  and  make 
a  list  of  places  where  laboratory  work  for  graduate  students  in 
political  science  can  be  done;  (2)  to  recommend  to  the  various 
college  and  university  faculties  that  due  graduate  credit  be 
given  to  such  places;  (3)  to  use  its  best  endeavors  to  obtain 
scholarships  for  this  laboratory  work  and  to  secure  an  endow- 
ment for  the  building  up  of  a  trained  body  of  public  servants; 
and  (4)  to  make,  if  possible,  a  system  of  card  records  and  ef- 
ficiency standards  for  graduates  doing  practical  work  in  political 
science.1  A  joint  committee  on  conference  was  appointed  by 
the  American  Economic  Association.  A  preliminary  report  was 
presented  to  the  American  Political  Science  Association  in  1914. 
Subsequently  a  plan  was  submitted  for  training  schools  for  pub- 
lic service  with  proposed  standard  regulations  for  the  degree  of 
doctor  of  philosophy.2  As  an  outgrowth  of  the  work  undertaken 
through  this  committee  two  national  conferences  were  held  and  a 
society  was  formed  for  the  promotion  of  training  for  the  public 
service. 

One  of  the  significant  things  in  the  present  movement  to  im- 
prove the  teaching  of  government  in  the  schools  and  colleges  is 
the  apparent  unanimity  of  opinion  among  the  various  committees 
interested.  While  each  is  approaching  the  subject  from  a  some- 
what different  angle  and  while  the  results  and  conclusions  offered 

1  Charles  McCarthy,  Madison,  Chairman,  Albert  Bushnell  Hart,  Har- 
vard University,  Benjamin  F.  Shambaugh,  University  of  Iowa,  William  F. 
Willoughby,  Princeton  University,  Raymond  G.  Gettell,  Amherst  College. 

2  For  information  relative  to  the  work  of  this  committee  write  to  the  Chair- 
man, Dr.  Charles  McCarthy,  Madison,  Wis. 


RECENT  PROGRESS  27 

will  no  doubt  vary  somewhat,  all  indications  point  in  the  direc- 
tion that  the  several  Associations  are  working  toward  a  single 
end,  that  is,  to  make  the  study  of  government  an  essential 
feature  of  our  educational  system,  to  tie  the  instruction  to  the 
interest  and  conditions  of  local  communities,  to  stress  functions 
and  to  approach  the  study  of  governmental  forms  and  of  gen- 
eral principles  through  the  avenue  of  functions.  It  is  fortunate 
that  several  organizations  of  national  importance  are  offering 
recommendations  at  the  same  time,  and  are  preparing  sugges- 
tions as  well  as  concrete  aid  to  teachers.  The  subject  of  govern- 
ment has  too  long  been  made  a  subordinate  and  minor  matter  in 
the  school  curriculum.  It  is  now  well  on  its  way  to  secure  the 
prominent  place  in  the  schools  which  the  content  of  the  subject 
and  its  significance  to  the  community  so  well  deserve. 

III.  The  Purpose  of  Instruction  in  Government. 

i.  Aims  of  Civic  Instruction. 

The  prime  purposes  of  a  study  of  civic  relations  are  so  obvious 
as  to  require  little  in  the  way  of  discussion.  They  may  be 
summarized  thus: 

1.  To  awaken  a  knowledge  of  the  fact  that  the  citizen  is  in  a 
social  environment  whose  laws  bind  him  for  his  own  good. 

2.  To  acquaint  the  citizen  with  the  forms  of  organization 
and  methods  of  administration  of  government  in  its  several  de- 
partments. 

These  objects  it  is  believed  can  be  better  attained  if  the  school 
begins  to  aid  the  young  citizen  not  only  to  think  in  terms  of 
society  but  also  to  translate  civic  thought  into  action.  Instead 
of  abstract  theories  and  facts  which  have  no  meaning  children 
can  readily  be  taught  to  read  government  reports  and  to  learn 
what  are  the  significant  facts  to  look  for.  In  the  words  of  Henry 
Bruere,  "Why  should  not  a  high  school  pupil  learn  that  the 
efficiency  of  the  health  department  may  be  gauged  by  some 
such  facts  as:  the  death  rate,  infant  mortality  rate,  measles, 


28  THE  TEACHING  OF  GOVERNMENT 

scarlet  fever  and  diphtheria  rates  (morbidity  and  death),  the 
bacteria  count  of  milk,  maximum,  minimum  and  average,  the 
number  of  school  children  treated  for  defects,  the  number  of 
nuisances  abated — all  as  compared  with  previous  records." 
Such  is  the  viewpoint  emphasized  in  community  civics  in  which 
the  chief  object  is  to  help  the  child  to  know  his  own  community. 
The  specific  aims  of  community  civics  are  designated  in  the 
Bureau  of  Education  Bulletin  on  the  Teaching  of  Community 
Civics  as: 

1.  To  see  the  importance  and  significance  of  the  elements  of  com- 
munity welfare  in  their  relations  to  himself  and  to  the  communities 
of  which  he  is  a  member; 

2.  To  know  the  social  agencies,  governmental  and  voluntary,  that 
exist  to  secure  these  elements  of  community  welfare; 

3.  To  recognize  his  civic  obligations,  present  and  future,  and  to 
respond  to  them  by  appropriate  action. 

These  three  aims  are  given  in  the  above  order  because  it  is  essential 
to  the  success  of  this  course  that  at  the  outset  the  interest  of  the 
pupil  be  attached  to  the  element  of  common  welfare,  and  that  he  be 
taught  to  think  of  each  agency  as  a  means  to  an  end  and  not  as  an  end 
in  itself.  Each  part  of  the  study  should  culminate  in  a  recognition 
of  personal  responsibility  as  a  good  citizen,  and,  as  far  as  possible, 
in  appropriate  action. 

Many  courses  in  civics  fail  because  they  fix  attention  upon  the 
machinery  of  government  rather  than  upon  the  elements  of  community 
welfare  for  which  government  exists;  that  is,  they  familiarize  the 
pupil  with  the  manipulation  of  the  social  machinery  without  showing 
him  the  importance  of  the  social  ends  for  which  this  machinery  should 
be  used.  Consequently,  the  pupil  upon  leaving  school,  uses  his  knowl- 
edge for  ends  which  are  most  evident  to  him,  namely,  his  own  selfish 
interests. 

2.  Civics  for  the  Education  of  the  Electorate. 

One  of  the  chief  reasons  why  the  teaching  of  government  has 
appeared  useless  and  futile  is  that  the  subject  was  treated  as 
designed  mainly  to  educate  voters.  Accordingly  its  direct 
application  could  only  be  to  those  who  would  in  the  future  be 


RECENT  PROGRESS  29 

qualified  to  exercise  the  suffrage  and  the  practical  applications 
were  so  remote  as  to  be  nearly  negligible.  Moreover,  the  voter 
is  called  upon  to  fulfill  this  high  function  only  on  special  occa- 
sions and  in  such  a  manner  as  to  render  it  questionable  whether 
any  course  in  civic  training  could  be  of  much  value.  As  long  as 
civics  was  thought  of  as  chiefly  devised  to  educate  voters  its 
value  and  utility,  however  important  the  exercise  of  the  fran- 
chise might  be,  would  be  considered  as  exceedingly  remote. 
The  information  in  the  course  would  be  of  such  a  character  as 
to  be  forgotten  long  before  any  practical  application  would  be 
possible.  Whereas  if  civic  training  were  conceived  as  a  training 
to  fit  citizens  of  all  classes,  ages  and  conditions  to  lead  lives  of 
usefulness  and  service  in  the  community  of  everyday  affairs 
the  course  would  become  at  once  vital,  interesting  and  practical. 
It  is  a  change  in  emphasis,  a  development  of  a  new  point  of  view, 
more  than  any  other  thing  that  has  contributed  to  the  growth  of 
interest  in  civic  studies.  Although  training  to  participate  in  the 
everyday  social  and  political  activities  of  the  community  is  un- 
questionably the  foremost  aim  of  social  studies  it  nevertheless 
remains  true  that  some  special  attention  should  be  given  to 
those  matters  which  have  to  do  with  the  rights  and  obligations 
of  the  future  voter.  Naturally  creating  an  interest  and  desire 
to  participate  in  community  affairs  will  give  the  most  effective 
preliminary  preparation  for  the  future  elector. 

It  is  strange  indeed  that  educators  have  been  so  slow  to  recog- 
nize their  duties  and  responsibilities  to  the  community  in  a 
nation  where  democratic  rules  and  practices  prevail.  Nowhere 
has  the  citizen  been  accorded  such  heavy  burdens  and  far  reach- 
ing responsibilities  as  in  the  United  States.  The  task  of  the 
citizen  who  is  commonly  lauded  as  the  sovereign  in  this  country 
is  performed,  among  many  other  duties  and  responsibilities,  in  the 
election  of  officials,  local,  state  and  national.  In  addition  to  the 
election  of  a  host  of  officials,  the  citizen  as  voter  is  called  upon  to 
nominate  these  officers.  Finally,  he  is  called  upon  to  make  con- 


30  THE  TEACHING  OF  GOVERNMENT 

stitutions  and  by  frequent  revisions  and  amendments  to  change 
the  fundamental  law  under  which  he  lives.  Moreover,  through 
the  initiative  and  referendum  he  may  have  the  responsibility 
to  vote  upon  the  laws  which  shall  govern  him.  In  the  same  elec- 
tion, he  may  be  expected  to  vote  on  dozens  of  propositions  to 
be  enacted  into  law  and  for  candidates  for  scores  of  offices. 

We  have  lauded  the  spectacle  of  the  common  people  rising  to 
the  height  of  free  government  through  the  ballot,  we  have  heaped 
additional  burdens  upon  citizens,  but  what  have  we  done  and 
what  are  we  doing  to  educate  the  people  to  use  intelligently  the 
mighty  weapon  of  democracy? 

It  is  not  an  exaggeration  to  say  that  little  attention  has  been 
given  to  practical  instruction  in  the  devices  which  make  demo- 
cratic government  possible.  To  be  sure  much  has  been  written 
and  much  more  said  about  education  for  citizenship.  It  has 
been  the  stock  in  trade  for  political  orators  and  commence- 
ment speakers. 

But  politicians,  bosses,  machine  manipulators  and  ward 
heelers,  have  long  since  discovered  the  utter  sham  and  foolish- 
ness of  this  twaddle  about  citizenship  which  ends  in  rhetoric. 
They  have  busied  themselves  with  ballot  legislation,  cultivating 
constituencies,  delivering  votes,  filling  offices  and  controlling  the 
men  who  fill  them.  They  have  studied  the  art  of  citizenship  while 
teachers  have  been  wont  to  elevate  and  inspire  by  theoretical 
dissertations  on  good  citizenship.  While  students  have  memor- 
ized, lauded  and  worshipped  our  federal  Constitution  and 
doted  upon  the  wonders  of  our  unique  plan  of  government 
political  leaders  have  quietly  garnered  a  harvest  by  mastering 
the  art  of  manipulating  the  machinery  of  government. 

Although  the  entire  public  school  system  has  as  one  of  its 
aims  the  training  of  citizens  it  can  scarcely  be  claimed  that 
anything  more  than  a  beginning  has  been  made  to  educate  and 
train  definitely  for  actual  service  in  the  community  the  citizens 
who  pass  under  the  influence  of  our  public  school  system.  We 


RECENT  PROGRESS  31 

have  yet  to  learn  the  lesson  which  received  convincing  demon- 
stration in  Greece,  that  democracy  is  possible  only  with  an 
electorate  trained  in  the  most  complete  sense  in  civic  affairs. 

3.  Civics  and  Social  Service. 

The  recent  development  of  civics  from  obscurity  to  a  leading 
place  in  education  indicates  that  educators  are  coming  to  ap- 
preciate their  responsibilities  in  this  respect.  According  to  G. 
Stanley  Hall,  "The  one  word  now  written  across  the  very  zenith 
of  the  educational  skies,  high  above  all  others,  is  the  word  serv- 
ice." This  is  coming  to  be  as  it  should  be,  he  maintains,  the 
supreme  goal  of  all  pedagogical  endeavor,  the  standard  by  which 
all  other  values  are  to  be  measured.  In  this  dispensation,  the 
very  best  thing  the  schools  are  beginning  to  do  is  to  inculcate 
some  knowledge  of  and  sympathy  with  the  simple  duties  of 
civic  virtue.  The  new  process  places  great  emphasis  and  high 
responsibility  upon  the  teachers  of  the  social  sciences,  history, 
economics  and  civics,  the  latter  not  being  the  least  of  the  three 
in  furnishing  its  part  of  the  training  for  the  new  calling.  The 
beginning  of  civic  education  is  the  betterment  of  the  group 
spirit.  To  continue  from  the  admirable  characterization  of  the 
high  purpose  of  civic  instruction  by  Professor  Hall: 

Our  schools  were  established  to  give  an  intelligent  basis  to  govern- 
ment of,  by,  and  for  the  people,  and  in  civics  we  are  restoring  the 
school  to  this  prime  original  function,  the  need  of  which  has  greatly 
increased  by  reason  of  the  growing  complexity  of  governmental 
machinery.  Owing  to  the  progressive  educational  neglect  of  these 
fields  in  recent  decades  and  to  the  great  influx  of  foreigners  who  needed 
to  be  inducted  into  the  very  elements  of  democracy,  the  chasm 
made  by  this  increasing  political  ignorance,  on  the  one  hand,  and  the 
increased  intricacy  of  methods  and  the  vast  multiplication  of  prob- 
lems and  agencies,  on  the  other,  we  have  passed  through  a  period  of 
miscarriage  that  will  soon  be  regarded  as  tragic  and  pathetic.  The 
old  basis  of  intelligent,  independent,  patriotic,  rural  yeomanry  of  the 
post-constitutional  days  has  gone  forever  or  become  an  element  of 
dwindling  significance,  and  in  its  place  the  average  voter  is  urban, 


32       THE  TEACHING  OF  GOVERNMENT 

unenlightened,  thinks,  feels,  and  acts  in  squads  and  at  the  dictation 
of  interested  leaders,  who  often  acquire  despotic  power,  animated  by 
the  hope  of  gain,  while  they  and  legislators  are  often  coerced  by  the 
public-be-damned  private  interests,  trusts,  etc.  The  new  socializa- 
tion seeks  to  put  an  end  to  all  this  by  teaching  young  children  sound 
and  loyal  sentiments  and  inducting  older  ones  into  the  technique 
of  public  administration.  The  civic  movement  would  make  every 
school  and  university  a  solidarity  of  mutual  helpfulness,  would  arouse 
and  capture  the  very  greatest  power  for  good  that  exists  in  the  world 
which  is  the  enthusiasm  of  youth.1 

The  period  of  civic  awakening  thus,  thinks  Professor  Hall,  pre- 
sents a  pedagogical  situation  of  unexcelled  opportunities.  It 
marks  a  new  order  in  which  civics  becomes  the  religion  of  service 
of  the  public  schools.  If  it  is  the  chief  end  of  education  to  fit  one 
to  respond  intelligently  to  that  high  calling  which  is  the  common 
call  to  every  man  to  take  his  place,  to  do  his  work  in  the  commu- 
nity of  his  fellows,  the  new  civics  must  be  given  a  much  greater 
place  in  the  school  curriculum  than  is  now  commonly  accorded. 

4.  Danger  in  Civics  Teaching. 

Viscount  Bryce  long  ago  called  attention  to  a  danger  which  is 
likely  to  occur  in  the  teaching  of  government.  The  difficulty 
seems  to  be  that  information  is  presented  to  enable  recipients 
to  think  they  know  something  about  the  great  problems  of 
politics,  and  yet  this  information  may  be  insufficient  to  show 
how  little  they  really  know.  This  danger  is  so  obvious  that  some 
writers  go  so  far  as  to  oppose  all  civic  instruction  because  of 
superficial  knowledge  and  snap  judgments  which  are  based 
thereon.  In  the  words  of  Professor  Hall  again,  "the  cause  of 
civic  righteousness  is  so  vast  and  all  conditioning,  especially  in  a 
democracy,  that  it  often  makes  feeble  and  untrained  minds 
fanatic  and  discredits  the  very  cause  they  would  advance." 

Teachers  of  civics  recognize  this  difficulty  and  realize  that  it  is 

1  "Educational  Problems,"  vol  2,  Chapter  on  Civic  Education,  pp.  667- 
682. 


RECENT  PROGRESS  33 

necessary  at  the  same  time  that  instruction  in  government  be 
presented  to  impress  the  spirit  of  humility  and  the  necessity  of 
deferring  to  the  judgment  of  experts  on  many  questions  relating 
to  civic  affairs.  Relative  to  this  matter,  David  Snedden,  Com- 
missioner of  Education  of  Massachusetts,  in  discussing  the  na- 
ture of  a  liberal  education  observes:  "The  essence  of  general 
civic  education  is  to  produce  good  employers  of  civic  workers, 
that  is,  persons  who  will  know  how  to  choose  efficient  and  honest 
employees.  From  this  standpoint,  shall  we  continue  to  be  able 
to  call  a  man  liberally  educated  for  the  conditions  of  modern 
life  who  manifests  incapacity  and  professes  indifference  in  exer- 
cising his  social  responsibility  in  the  joint  purchase  of  expert 
political  service?"  A  similar  opinion  is  that  expressed  by  Ex- 
President  Eliot  who  says:  "To  produce  such  experts  and  to 
instil  respect  for  expert  judgment  is  one  of  the  most  urgent 
duties  of  the  American  university.  For  insufficient  apprecia- 
tion of  the  value  of  expert  labor  is  one  of  the  worst  afflictions  of 
American  life." 

The  problem  which  confronts  instructors  in  civics  is  one 
which  inheres  in  every  phase  of  our  national  life.  How  far  can 
questions  of  government  be  considered  and  determined  by  the 
electorate  and  through  public  opinion,  and  how  far  can  they 
best  be  determined  by  experts  trained  for  the  governmental 
service  and  practical  affairs  of  administration?  It  is  necessary 
to  realize  in  this  regard  a  distinction  which  is  also  beginning  to 
receive  consideration  among  practical  men  of  affairs  as  well  as 
among  students  and  teachers  of  politics,  one  which  is  much 
more  generally  understood  in  the  European  countries  than  in  the 
United  States,  namely,  that  political  matters  may  properly  and 
logically  be  separated  into  two  distinct  classes.  One  class  com- 
prises questions  of  a  general  nature,  questions  of  policy  and  of 
the  point  of  view  and  attitude  of  the  community  toward  govern- 
ment and  its  activities,  and  of  questions  which  are  essentially 
political  in  nature  and  on  which  public  opinion  and  the  electorate 


34  THE  TEACHING  OF  GOVERNMENT 

may  determine  with  a  great  degree  of  certainty  and  accuracy. 
On  the  other  hand,  there  is  a  large  part  of  governmental  affairs 
which  is  technical  in  nature  and  on  which  no  one  but  an  expert 
is  qualified  to  form  an  opinion  of  any  value  whatever.  The 
great  majority  of  governmental  issues  and  problems  particularly 
in  the  complex  society  of  to-day  come  within  the  second  class, 
but  the  expert  in  his  field  must  be  tempered  and  directed  by  the 
predominant  voice  of  public  opinion  as  determined  in  the 
settlement  of  public  questions.  The  teacher  of  civics  then  has 
with  respect  to  the  education  of  future  voters  a  twofold  aim: 
first,  to  aid  in  the  appreciation  and  consideration  of  the  under- 
lying principles  and  of  the  great  political  issues  which  the  citi- 
zen is  called  upon  to  decide;  second,  to  offer  sufficient  knowl- 
edge and  appreciation  of  the  administration  of  government  so 
as  to  render  possible  the  understanding  of  the  work  of  the  expert 
and  to  aid  in  the  selecting  process  which  belongs  to  the  citizen. 
Moreover,  the  chief  function  of  civic  instruction,  it  must  always 
be  remembered,  is  not  simply  to  give  a  kind  of  preliminary  train- 
ing for  casting  the  ballot  for  this  is  but  a  small  part  of  the  duty 
which  citizenship  entails.  To  appreciate  the  social  and  gov- 
ernmental institutions  of  his  community,  to  fulfill  his  part  in 
making  those  institutions  agencies  of  progress  and  helpfulness 
in  the  great  struggle  for  good  government  and  liberty,  such  is 
the  high  function  of  civic  instruction. 

IV.  Methods,  Material  and  Devices. 

While  the  content  of  government  teaching  has  undergone  a 
marked  transformation  within  recent  years,  the  methods  and 
material  of  the  course  have  been  subject  to  no  less  reformation. 
The  old  text-book  style  of  instruction  with  the  memorization 
of  constitutions,  names  of  officers,  etc.,  was  relatively  simple 
and  it  is  not  surprising  that  the  subject  of  civics  was  assigned 
to  some  member  of  the  high  school  faculty  to  fill  an  otherwise 
incomplete  schedule.  Fortunately,  this  type  of  instruction  as 


RECENT  PROGRESS  35 

well  as  this  kind  of  teacher  are  rapidly  disappearing,  and  the 
new  civics  requires  a  knowledge  of  a  wider  range  of  material 
and  involves  difficulties  of  method  which  will  soon  render  it 
entirely  impracticable  for  any  but  the  specially  trained  teacher 

to  undertake  the  presentation  of  the  subject. 

* 

i.  Ways  of  Rendering  Instruction  Practical. 

The  method  which  is  being  adopted  in  the  progressive  courses 
of  civic  instruction  includes  a  diversity  of  material  and  a  variety 
of  ways  of  handling  the  same.  No  course  in  secondary  civics 
can  now  be  presented  effectively  without  a  good  text  as  a  basis 
for  the  course,  a  considerable  number  of  prescribed  supplemen- 
tary readings,  a  library  of  important  works  of  reference  com- 
bined with  a  reference  bureau  or  special  department  of  civic 
affairs.  Modern  magazines  and  newspapers  are  extensively 
used  and  the  instruction  is  carried  out  into  practical  lines  in- 
volving field  work,  investigations  and  observations.  Accord- 
ing to  the  opinion  of  Ex-President  Eliot,  the  fundamental 
principle  of  education  is  "that  children  are  best  developed 
through  productive  activities,  -that  is,  through  positive,  visible 
achievement  in  doing,  making  or  producing  something."  Ef- 
fective training  for  citizenship  therefore  requires  that  pupils 
shall  be  held  responsible  for  making  investigations  upon  matters 
of  local  application  as  they  arise  in  the  work. 

To  render  the  instruction  in  the  subject  concrete  and  to 
demonstrate  the  practical  nature  of  government  itself,  the 
following  duties  of  citizenship  must  be  stressed  at  every  avail- 
able opportunity: 

1.  Compliance  with  school  regulations;  care  of  books  and 
school  property;  obedience  to  laws  and  rules  laid  down  for  the 
good  of  the  community  and  of  the  school. 

2.  Responsibility  to  the  poor  and  helpless;  prevention  of 
cruelty  to  children  and  animals;  necessity  for  independence 
and  self-support. 


36  THE  TEACHING  OF  GOVERNMENT 

3.  Care  for  and  protection  of  playgrounds  and  park  property 
such  as  trees,  flowers,  and  benches.     The  school  and  home 
garden  can  be  made  a  valuable  adjunct  to  inculcate  some  prac- 
tical civic  lessons. 

4.  Keeping  cellars,  yards,  alleys,  roads  and  streets  clean,  free 
from  rubbish,  filth  and  dirt.    Many  cities  have  already  learned 
the  practical  utility  as  well  as  the  educative  value  of  interesting 
the  young  citizens  in  civic  welfare. 

Wherever  feasible  the  class  should  be  taken  to  a  session  of 
court,  a  meeting  of  city  council  or  commission,  the  county  court 
house,  and  perchance  the  state  and  the  national  capitols.  Classes 
can  with  profit  be  organized  as  a  town  meeting,  court  or  legisla- 
tive assembly.  Trials  can  be  held  and  elections  participated  in 
by  the  school  in  such  a  way  as  to  demonstrate  the  practical  pro- 
cedure of  government.  The  principles  as  well  as  the  practice 
of  civics  can  be  demonstrated  in  no  better  way  than  by  the 
encouragement  and  development  of  student  self-government. 
The  School  City,1  the  George  Junior  Republic,  student  organiza- 
tions to  control  athletics  and  debate,  indicate  clearly  that  under 
careful  supervision  junior  citizens  may  be  trusted  with  a  large 
measure  of  responsibility.  In  fact  it  is  difiicult  to  understand 
how  children  can  be  trained  to  take  their  part  in  the  demo- 
cratic control  and  management  of  government  unless  they  are 
treated  as  responsible  beings  by  school  instructors.  Teachers 
have  too  long  assumed  that  it  was  necessary  to  organize  the 
school  on  the  principles  and  procedure  of  a  despotism.  The 
remarkable  success  of  self-government  in  many  cases  where  it 
has  been  given  a  fair  trial  demonstrates  its  value  not  only  as  a 
plan  of  school  discipline  but  also  as  a  training  in  practical  civics. 

An  effective  method  of  securing  results  and  encouraging  in- 

1  For  information  as  to  the  organization  and  operation  of  the  School  City 
in  various  schools  consult  The  Boys  and  Girls'  Republic  and  A  New 
Citizenship,  by  Wilson  L.  Gill,  or  write  to  the  American  Patriotic  League, 
Independence  Hall,  Phila. 


RECENT  PROGRESS  37 

terest  in  this  line  has  been  found  in  certain  communities  in  the 
formation  of  civic  clubs  such  as:  The  Two  Rivers  plan,  The 
Georgia  Club,  The  Winston-Salem  Junior  Civic  League  and  the 
Newark  scheme  for  an  organized  study  of  local  government  and 
community  interest.  The  Winston-Salem  idea  devised  primarily 
as  a  method  of  training  for  citizenship  involves  the  following 
purposes: 

1.  Cooperation  between  public  schools  and  local  board  of 
trade. 

2.  Establishment  of  a  department  of  government  and  econom- 
ics, in  the  high  school. 

3.  Formation  of  a  boys'  department  or  juvenile  club  of  the 
board  of  trade. 

The  success  of  this  club  is  such  as  to  commend  the  plan  to 
teachers  of  civics  in  towns  and  cities  particularly  where  there  are 
local  chambers  of  commerce,  although  it  is  quite  apparent  that 
great  modifications  are  necessary  to  apply  any  device  of  this 
sort  so  as  to  meet  the  peculiarities  of  local  environment. 

In  connection  with  the  civics  department  of  the  high  schools 
of  Newark,  N.  J.,  a  plan  was  developed  by  which  pamphlets 
were  issued  on  the  industries  of  Newark  and  the  government 
of  the  city  in  all  its  departments,  while  such  matters  as  city 
health,  sanitation  and  milk  supply  were  taken  up  in  separate 
bulletins  prepared  by  the  civics  teachers.  These  bulletins  were 
used  as  texts  on  local  government  and  the  students  were  en- 
couraged to  help  in  gathering  the  information  for  other  bulle- 
tins.1 Another  method  of  rendering  the  study  of  local  govern- 
ment effective  is  that  of  the  Rockford  High  School,  Rockford, 
111.,  where  the  instructors  in  civil  government  have  prepared 
a  thorough  syllabus  on  the  "Government  of  Rockford  and 

1 A  feature  of  the  Newark  plan  is  the  cooperation  of  the  public  library  in 
making  available  to  the  pupils  and  other  citizens  of  the  city  well  selected 
printed  material  relating  to  every  phase  of  Newark's  development  and  com- 
munity life.  Cf.  Report  of  the  Commissioner  of  Education,  1914,  p.  410. 


38  THE  TEACHING  OF  GOVERNMENT 

Winnebago  County."  The  early  history  and  the  commercial 
and  educational  advantages  of  Rockf ord  are  presented,  followed 
by  an  outline  of  local  government  in  all  its  phases  with  some 
select  references  added  for  the  special  study  of  each  topic. 
While  it  is  not  necessary  to  provide  so  extensive  an  outline  as 
this  the  civics  department  in  each  school  may  find  it  helpful  to 
prepare  a  method  of  procedure  in  the  study  of  local  government. 
Because  of  the  wide  variations  in  local  communities  no  general 
plan  can  be  recommended  for  use  by  all  teachers.  All  general 
outlines  must  be  greatly  modified  to  meet  the  needs  of  any 
special  community.  It  is  always  to  be  remembered  that  the 
community  is  in  the  nature  of  a  laboratory  and  the  work  must 
be  kept  close  to  local  conditions  and  needs. 

Special  mention  may  be  made  also  of  The  Two  Rivers  plan  put 
into  operation  during  the  past  six  years  in  Two  Rivers,  Wis- 
consin, where  the  aim  of  the  work  has  been  to  develop  a  spirit 
of  cooperation  and  civic  pride  through  the  medium  of  the  city 
school  system  by  awakening  interest  in  the  homes  of  the  pupils 
in  the  schools.  Civic  activities  are  centred  around  the  work  of 
the  public  school  system  in  the  following  manner: 

The  meetings  of  the  Parent-Teachers'  Association,  the  various 
civic  clubs,  industrial  schools,  etc.,  are  all  held  in  the  Central  High 
School  building  which  is  at  the  geographical  centre  of  the  city.  The 
civic  movements  have  been  started  by  discussions  in  the  various 
literary  groups  and  classes  of  the  schools.  These  discussions  are 
carried  into  the  homes  by  the  children.  The  local  newspapers  are 
used  to  the  full  extent,  both  in  editorial  and  news  departments.  When 
the  subjects  in  question  have  been  fully  discussed  in  the  homes,  one 
or  more  general  meetings  are  held  in  the  high  school  auditorium 
which  has  a  seating  capacity  of  800.  Here  an  address  is  given  by 
experts,  usually  officials  of  the  city,  and  definite  action  is  taken  either 
by  resolution  of  the  citizens  present  or  promise  of  action  by  the  city 
officials. 

Womens'  Clubs,  Parent-Teachers'  Association,  Civic  Leagues, 
Commercial  Club  and  City  government  are  all  encouraged  to  work 
through  the  civic  department  of  the  public  schools.  The  success  of 


RECENT  PROGRESS  39 

the  plan  bids  fair  to  encourage  its  acceptance  and  application  by 
many  communities  similarly  situated.1 

Another  movement  which  offers  interesting  possibilities  along 
the  line  of  civic  training  is  to  be  found  in  the  Home  County 
Club.  This  has  been  developed  somewhat  in  Georgia  and  more 
definitely  in  North  Carolina  under  the  leadership  of  E.  C.  Bran- 
son. The  main  purpose  of  these  clubs  is  to  form  a  clearing  house 
and  ready  reference  library  about  local  and  state  affairs.  Spe- 
cial emphasis  has  been  given  in  both  of  these  states  to  economic 
and  social  questions,  but  political  matters  receive  incidental 
consideration,  and  the  Home  County  Club  offers  excellent 
possibilities  for  the  study  of  public  health,  sanitation,  public 
charity  and  correction.  County  officers  and  the  functions  which 
they  perform  can  thus  be  studied  in  a  much  more  effective 
manner  than  has  been  possible  heretofore.  Such  clubs  may 
readily  become  centres  of  information  and  improvement  in 
the  organization  of  the  county,  for  better  schools,  better  roads, 
better  health,  better  justice,  better  protection  to  the  social 
and  industrial  interests  of  the  community. 

2.  The  Community  Survey. 

No  step  forward  within  recent  times  offers  so  great  pos- 
sibilities for  the  purpose  of  civic  instruction  in  local  affairs 
as  is  involved  in  the  social  or  community  survey.  The  idea  is 
comparatively  new  and  the  methods  involved  have  only  recently 
been  clearly  formulated.  The  original  purposes  are  thus  pre- 
sented by  one  of  the  leading  advocates  of  this  device: 

"i.  To  bring  a  group  of  experts  together  to  cooperate  with 
local  leaders  in  gauging  the  social  needs  of  one  city. 

"2.  To  study  these  needs  in  relation  to  each  other,  to  the 
whole  area  of  the  city,  and  to  the  civic  responsibilities  of  de- 
mocracy. 

1  Furnished  by  W.  J.  Hamilton,  Two  Rivers,  Wis. 


40  THE  TEACHING  OF  GOVERNMENT 

"3.  To  consider  at  the  same  time  both  civic  and  industrial 
conditions,  and  to  consider  them  for  the  most  part  in  their 
bearings  upon  the  wage-earning  population. 

"4.  To  reduce  conditions  to  terms  of  household  experience 
and  human  life. 

"5.  To  devise  graphic  methods  for  making  these  findings 
challenging,  clear  and  unmistakable."  1 

It  was  intended  that  the  survey  record  and  present  essentially 
the  industrial  and  economic  conditions  of  the  community.  To 
this  original  purpose  has  now  been  added  the  comprehensive 
study  and  presentation  of  political  organization  and  methods. 
In  this  regard  the  survey  idea  has  developed  so  as  to  form  a 
useful  device  for  civic  instruction.  The  activities  of  the  Georgia 
Club  give  some  idea  of  the  work  which  may  be  done  in  this 
field.  The  Russell  Sage  Foundation  of  New  York  City  and  the 
extension  department  of  the  state  university  are  always  ready 
to  furnish  information  and  to  cooperate  in  aiding  local  com- 
munities to  make  surveys.  A  beginning  may  be  made  by  any 
high  school  instructor  who  thoroughly  familiarizes  himself 
with  the  literature  now  available  on  social  and  community 
surveys. 

3.  Reference  Library  on  Civic  Affairs. 

Few  of  the  modern  methods  and  devices  can  be  used  to  ad- 
vantage or  with  any  degree  of  effectiveness  without  the  accumu- 
lation of  a  Reference  Library  on  Civic  Affairs.  These  libraries 
have  been  formed  and  their  usefulness  tested  with  the  result  that 
a  veritable  government  laboratory  can  be  prepared  and  made  a 
most  important  adjunct  to  the  government  department.  Ma- 
terial, of  great  interest  and  practical  value  is  issued  in  the  form 
of  pamphlets  or  reports,  and  no  teacher  can  afford  to  neglect 
this  material  especially  in  the  teaching  of  current  political  prob- 
lems. Sample  ballots,  copies  of  laws  and  ordinances,  reports 

*  See  Pamphlet  on  Social  Surveys  issued  by  the  Russell  Sage  Foundation. 


RECENT  PROGRESS  41 

of  officers  and  departments,  maps  and  charts  showing  compara- 
tive statistics,  are  readily  available  and  will  add  greatly  to  the 
interest  in  government  studies.  Graphic  methods  which  have 
been  used  to  such  advantage  in  social  and  governmental  exhibits 
can  be  followed  in  the  preparation  of  many  charts  of  local  in- 
terest, and  will  display  matters  of  importance  not  only  to  the 
civics  class  but  also  to  the  community  at  large.  A  separate 
room  should  be  set  aside  in  which  maps,  charts  and  other 
graphic  devices  can  be  prepared  and  displayed,  and  a  part  if  not 
all  of  the  tune  given  to  the  study  of  government  may  well  be 
spent  in  this  room.  The  methods  employed  in  the  various  legis- 
lative and  municipal  reference  libraries  offer  many  suggestions 
which  can  be  profitably  applied  in  preparing  a  library  on  civic 
affairs.  Civics  teachers  wherever  practicable  would  find  it  an 
advantage  to  visit  one  of  the  reference  libraries  either  in  con- 
nection with  the  city  public  library  or  a  state  bureau  of  research 
and  reference. 

All  such  methods  and  devices  must  necessarily  be  used  with 
caution.  An  overzealous  interference  in  local  affairs  at  once 
defeats  its  own  end.  The  chief  object  always  to  be  kept  fore- 
most is  the  education  of  the  young  into  the  principles  and  prac- 
tice of  better  citizenship.  While  the  aid  of  these  young  citizens 
may  be  enlisted  in  clean-up  programs  and  civic  reform  such 
efforts  should  be  incidental  to  regular  methods  which  are  devised 
to  inform  and  interest  growing  citizens  in  the  conditions  and 
problems  of  local  community  life.  They  will  undoubtedly  re- 
ceive more  benefit  in  an  enlarged  vision  of  community  needs  and 
of  plans  to  better  social  conditions  than  the  community  will 
profit  by  the  efforts  of  youthful  reformers,  although  not  a  little 
can  be  accomplished  by  interesting  children  in  improvement 
campaigns. 

Moreover,  field  work,  observations  and  investigations  while 
extremely  useful,  in  fact  indispensable,  in  a  civics  course  can 
never  take  the  place  of  regular  class  room  and  library  reference 


42  THE  TEACHING  OF  GOVERNMENT 

work  based  upon  a  good  text.  All  that  field  work  can  do  is  to  add 
life  and  interest  to  the  formal  class  room  and  book  study.  Prac- 
tical devices,  local  surveys,  observations  of  local  government 
ought  never  to  be  engaged  in  with  any  other  purpose  than  to 
supplement  definite  and  systematic  class  room  work.  A  course 
that  is  merely  inspirational  without  the  necessary  background 
of  information  and  data  to  support  it  must  be  largely  ineffectual, 
and  there  is  danger  that  field  work  or  sociological  investigations 
poorly  directed  may  lead  to  a  superficial  view  of  government 
tending  to  create  visionary  and  impractical  citizens  who  without 
necessary  knowledge  or  the  proper  perspective  set  about  to 
reform  society.  No  practical  methods  can  take  the  place  of  a 
careful  and  painstaking  study  of  governmental  principles  and 
practice.  The  main  body  of  a  civics  course  will  always  have  to 
be  this  sort  of  study  based  on  regular  text-books  with  definite 
class  assignments.  It  is  extremely  important  that  civic  instruc- 
tion be  put  into  close  vital  touch  with  government  in  actual 
operation,  but  this  vital  touch  can  never  compensate  for  a  lack 
of  an  indispensable  knowledge  of  governmental  forms  and  the 
fundamental  principles  of  political  affairs. 

4.  State  and  National  Government. 

While  emphasis  has  been  given  throughout  the  consideration 
of  instruction  in  the  public  schools  to  the  study  of  local  govern- 
ment and  community  functions  it  is  necessary  to  call  attention 
to  the  fact  that  it  is  not  intended  to  depreciate  the  study  of 
state  and  national  government.  In  elementary  courses  state 
and  national  affairs  may  be  presented  more  effectively  in  con- 
nection with  the  study  of  government  functions.  For  junior 
high  school  pupils  some  definite  and  specific  assignments  in  the 
course  will  necessarily  deal  with  the  organization  and  functions 
of  these  departments.  In  senior  high  school  much  more  atten- 
tion can  be  given  to  governmental  organization  than  would  be 
possible  or  advisable  in  the  earlier  grades.  Here  the  study  of 


RECENT  PROGRESS  43 

such  subjects  as  the  separation  of  powers,  the  organization  of 
government  into  departments,  the  houses  of  Congress,  the  organ- 
ization of  the  executive  department,  the  methods  of  adminis- 
tration as  well  as  the  similar  divisions  of  the  state  government 
including  many  of  the  boards  and  commissions  will  necessarily 
form  a  considerable  portion  of  the  course.  Throughout  this 
report  it  has  been  assumed  that  the  study  of  community  func- 
tions, the  problem  method  and  the  introduction  of  practical 
devices  will  result  in  the  elimination  of  some  of  the  useless  de- 
tails of  the  former  civics  course  and  will  involve  a  changed 
viewpoint  in  the  presentation  of  government  topics  rather  than 
a  totally  different  selection  of  topics.  By  directing  attention 
to  local  affairs  it  is  by  no  means  intended  that  less  attention  be 
given  to  state  and  nation. 

There  is  danger,  however,  in  the  urgent  demand  for  community 
civics  and  for  the  study  of  local  government  that  time  may  be 
frittered  away  in  considering  purely  local  affairs  and  matters  of 
petty  detail  to  the  exclusion  of  the  fundamental  issues  of  state 
affairs  and  national  politics.  The  development  of  local  civics 
will  be  largely  a  failure  unless  the  work  is  tied  up  closely  through- 
out with  the  study  of  the  functions  performed  by  the  state  gov- 
ernment, as  well  as  those  of  the  national  government  and  the 
important  place  of  each  of  these  divisions  in  our  complex  federal 
system. 

It  is  not  to  be  forgotten  that  the  new  civics  means  rather  the 
introduction  of  a  new  point  of  view  and  a  new  method  into  the 
instruction  in  civics.  It  means  a  vitalization  of  this  instruc- 
tion by  indicating  its  direct  connection  with  citizenship  and 
the  life  of  individuals  as  lived  in  a  community.  It  cannot 
therefore  involve  a  mere  study  of  local  affairs  and  local  con- 
ditions but  of  necessity  results  in  more  attention  to  and  more 
intelligent  consideration  of  the  affairs  of  the  state  and  the 
nation. 

Not  only  is  it  necessary  that  a  large  part  of  the  course  in 


44  THE  TEACHING  OF  GOVERNMENT 

civics  still  be  confined  to  a  study  of  state  and  federal  govern- 
ment, but  there  is  good  reason  to  believe  that  the  comparative 
method  may  be  introduced  with  profit,  particularly  in  senior  high 
school.  Such  comparisons  as  are  made  in  Bryce's  "American 
Commonwealth"  may  be  introduced  by  teachers  in  such  a  way 
as  to  render  civic  instruction  far  more  useful  and  suggestive. 
While  the  comparative  method  can  be  used  only  to  a  slight  ex- 
tent, and  only  by  teachers  trained  to  handle  such  material  effec- 
tively, it  can  undoubtedly  be  made  the  basis  of  some  very  inter- 
esting discussions,  particularly  if  the  pupils  have  the  opportunity 
of  studying  modern  European  history  either  previously  or  par- 
allel to  the  government  course.  The  committee  wishes,  there- 
fore, to  emphasize  the  fact  that  in  the  discussions  and  suggestions 
heretofore  offered  it  is  not  a  change  in  the  content  of  the  subject 
and  the  elimination  of  material  formerly  presented  so  much  as 
it  is  a  different  viewpoint  and  a  more  effective  method  in  the 
presentation  of  the  material  that  is  particularly  commended  to 
teachers. 

5.  Thoroughness. 

Finally,  the  committee  wishes  to  be  clearly  understood  as  not 
favoring  the  consideration  of  such  a  large  list  of  topics  and  such 
a  range  of  affairs  as  to  develop  a  wholly  superficial  attitude  in  the 
study  of  the  subject.  It  will  be  far  better  to  select  several  topics 
and  to  discuss  these  somewhat  fully  rather  than  to  attempt  a 
survey  of  a  large  list  of  agencies  or  functions.  A  mastery  of  a 
few  things  rather  than  a  superficial  view  gathered  from  a  wide 
and  discursive  study  is  always  to  be  preferred.  A  few  topics 
well  chosen  and  carefully  considered  may  be  treated  in  such  a 
manner  as  to  develop  the  most  important  principles  and  methods 
which  are  involved  in  the  ordinary  governmental  processes,  and 
although  there  is  a  complexity  in  the  subject  which  cannot  be 
ignored  or  eliminated,  it  may  be  well  to  remember  that  thor- 
oughness is  one  of  the  greatest,  if  not  the  greatest  need  of  the 


RECENT  PROGRESS  45 

public  school  system  at  the  present  time.  No  plan  of  civic 
instruction  can  be  worthy  of  retention  in  the  school  curriculum 
which  does  not  require  steady,  persistent  work  and  involve 
thoroughness  in  the  instruction  itself,  in  the  methods  of  study 
and  in  the  subject-matter  selected. 


PART  II 

REPORT  ON  THE  TEACHING  OF  CIVICS  IN  SECOND- 
ARY SCHOOLS 

ADVANCED    CIVICS   IN    SECONDARY   SCHOOLS 

I.  Report  of  Committee  of  Seven  in  Cooperation  with  the 
Bureau  of  Education 

THE  purpose  for  which  the  Committee  on  Instruction  was 
appointed  comprised  an  investigation  and  a  report  upon  the 
teaching  of  government  in  schools  and  colleges.  In  view  of  the 
present  situation  relative  to  the  teaching  of  government  it 
seemed  to  the  committee  that  college  instruction  should  receive 
first  attention.  Consequently  more  than  a  year  was  given  to 
an  investigation  of  courses  offered  and  methods  of  instruction 
in  higher  institutions.  The  improvement  of  civic  instruction 
in  elementary  and  secondary  schools  was  also  given  careful 
attention.  The  valuable  report  of  the  Committee  of  Five 
presented  in  1908  covered  the  secondary  schools  thoroughly 
and  the  task  for  the  committee  in  this  field  was  to  discover 
the  progress  made  since  1908  and  to  offer  such  additional  sug- 
gestions as  might  seem  advisable  in  the  light  of  changed  condi- 
tions.1 

By  an  agreement  with  A.  W.  Dunn,  specialist  in  civic  educa- 
tion, it  was  decided  that  the  committee  would  cooperate  with 
the  Bureau  of  Education  in  an  effort  to  procure  data  on  the 
present  status  of  instruction  in  secondary  schools.  An  inquiry 
prepared  by  the  committee  and  revised  by  Mr.  Dunn  was 
printed  and  distributed  by  the  Bureau  of  Education  to  a  select 

1  The  recommendations  offered  by  the  committee  of  five  naturally  form 
the  starting  point  for  any  suggestions  towards  improvement  in  secondary 
school  instruction.  The  noteworthy  recommendations  of  this  committee 
are  included  in  the  summary  presented,  pp.  23-25. 

46 


ADVANCED  CIVICS  IN  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS       47 

list  of  teachers  of  civics.    Only  a  portion  of  the  valuable  data 
made  available  in  this  inquiry  can  be  presented  herewith. 

The  letter  of  transmission  and  the  questionnaire  were  as 
follows: 

DEPARTMENT  OF  THE  INTERIOR,  BUREAU  OF  EDUCA- 
TION, WASHINGTON 

To  the  Principal  and  the  Instructor  in  Government: 

In  cooperation  with  a  number  of  civic  and  educational  organiza- 
tions, the  Bureau  of  Education  is  seeking  information  in  regard  to 
education  for  citizenship  in  the  schools  of  the  country.  It  is  the  aim 
of  the  Bureau  not  merely  to  cooperate  with  the  various  organizations 
that  are  seeking  to  render  service  in  a  common  field,  but  especially 
to  coordinate  their  efforts  so  that,  instead  of  numerous  inquiries  con- 
ducted independently  of  each  other,  there  may  be  one  inquiry  covering 
all  the  essential  information  required,  the  results  of  the  inquiry  to  be 
made  available  to  all.  It  is  hoped  that  this  will  be  a  distinct  service, 
not  only  to  the  several  agencies  seeking  information,  but  also  to 
school  authorities  and  teachers,  by  reducing  the  number  of  inquiries, 
official  and  unofficial,  undertaken  in  this  field. 

One  important  line  of  inquiry  in  this  field  is  that  relating  to  direct 
instruction  in  government  in  secondary  schools.  In  this  study  the 
Bureau  is  cooperating  especially  with  the  Committee  on  Instruction 
in  government  appointed  by  the  American  Political  Science  Associa- 
tion. This  committee  has  already  made  a  somewhat  exhaustive  study 
of  instruction  in  political  science  in  colleges  and  universities,  the  re- 
sults of  which  are  now  in.  The  committee  consists  of  Charles  G. 
Haines,  chairman,  University  of  Texas;  J.  Lynn  Barnard,  School  of 
Pedagogy,  Philadelphia;  Edgar  Dawson,  Hunter  College,  New  York 
City;  W.  L.  Fleming,  Louisiana  State  University;  Mabel  Hill,  Dean 
Post-Graduate  Department,  Dana  Hall  School,  Wellesley;  F.  E. 
Horack,  State  University  of  Iowa;  J.  A.  James,  Northwestern  Uni- 
versity. 

The  following  schedule  was  prepared  by  this  committee,  and  has 
been  repeatedly  revised  in  the  light  of  conferences  with  representatives 
of  the  Bureau  and  others,  and  put  in  a  form  to  render  response  as 
complete  and  as  easy  as  possible.  It  is  expected  that  the  results  of 
the  inquiry  will  be  published  by  the  Bureau  and  made  available,  not 
only  to  all  seeking  the  information,  but  to  all  who  cooperate  in  furnish- 
ing it. 


48       THE  TEACHING  OF  GOVERNMENT 

You  are  earnestly  requested,  therefore,  to  provide  the  information 
called  for  in  the  following  schedule,  filling  in  each  item  as  fully  and 

as  carefully  as  possible.  0.         . 

Sincerely  yours, 

P.  P.  CLAXTON, 
Commissioner. * 


1.  City  or  town Name  of  school 

Total  school  enrollment 

2.  Instruction  in  government  is  given  in  this  school  as  follows: 

Hours  per  Number  of  Number  Elec-    Re-      Sep.  Comb. 
week.         weeks.      enrolled    tive    quired  course 

First  year 

Second  year 

Third  year 

Fourth  year 

3.  Text-books  used: Supplementary  books  used: 

4.  The  principal  defects  of  secondary  school  text-books  in  govern- 

ment are  (in  my  opinion): 

5.  The  time  allotted  to  instruction  in  government  should  be 

increased     Howmuch? 

decreased 

Additional  time  for  instruction  in  government  could  be  provided  by 
the  following  method: 

6.  We  now  devote  approximately per  cent  of  the  course  in 

government  to  national  gov- 
ernment. 

per  cent  of  the  course  in  gov- 
ernment to  s  ate  govern- 
ment. 

per  cent  of  the  course  in  gov- 
ernment to  local  govern- 
ment. 

per  cent  of  the  course  in  gov- 
ernment to  municipal  gov- 
ernment. 

1  It  is  the  purpose  of  the  Bureau  of  Education  to  issue  a  bulletin  containing 
the  data  and  summarizing  the  results  of  this  inquiry.  For  information  write 
to  A.  W.  Dunn,  Specialist  in  Civic  Education. 


ADVANCED  CIVICS  IN  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS       49 

This  relative  time  allotment  would  be  advantageously  changed  as 

follows:  National per  cent 

State per  cent 

Local per  cent 

Municipal per  cent 

Organization  and  operation  of 


7.  We  place  the  main  emphasis  upon, 


government. 

Community  functions  and  du- 
ties and  obligations  of  citi- 
zens. 

8.  We  use  the  following  devices  to  supplement  instruction: 

(a)  Civic  scrap  book. 

(b)  Regular  drill  in  current  events. 

(c)  Debate  on  public  questions. 

(d)  Reading  of  nonpartisan  periodicals  (give  names) : 

(e)  Talks  to  class  by  public  officials  on  applied  politics. 

(f )  Other  devices  (mention) : 

T       ,  (is       )made  a  subject  of  field  investigation  by 

9.  Local  government  (isnot)pupils.    K  itiS)Statehow:. . . .    

10.  Our  pupils  (do       )  study  (appropriation  bills)  of  the  (local) 

(do  not)  (health  reports        )  (state) 

(other  reports         )  (national) 

departments  in  order  to  compare  with  results  achieved 

I  in  former  years. 

1  in  other  localities  or  states. 

11.  Our  pupils  (do       )  make  surveys  of  (streets  and  alleys)  with  ref- 

(do  not)  (public  buildings    ) 

erence  to  (sanitation) 
(safety) 
(appearance) 

12.  (a)  We  (do       )  have  a  system  of  pupil  participation  in  school 

(do  not) 
management,  as  follows  (briefly  describe) : 

for  school  discipline. 

(b)  This  system  (is      )  effective  as  a  means    for    t(fchinS     S°vern- 

(isnot)  L  m<f-       . 

for  developing  a  sense 

of  civic  relations. 


50  THE  TEACHING  OF  GOVERNMENT 

13.  Assuming  that  the  purpose  of  instruction  in  civics  is  to  train  for 
citizenship,  I  (do       )  consider  our  course  in  government  adequate  for 

(do  not) 
this  purpose,  and  for  the  following  reasons: 

14.  I  (the  teacher  of  government)  have  had  the  following  preparation 
for  teaching  government: 

(Note. — This  information  will  not  be  published  as  relating  to  in- 
dividuals.) 

(a)  Schools  attended 

(b)  Degrees  received 

(c)  Major  subjects 

(d)  Pedagogical  training 

(e)  Experience 

15.  I  would  make  the  following  suggestions  for  the  improvement  of 
instruction  generally  in  government  and  civics 


Signed 

Official  position 


Some  Results  and  Conclusions  from  this  Inquiry. 

2.  Time  given  to  the  course. 

Civics  is  given  as  a  rule  in  the  third  or  fourth  year  of  the  high 
school,  although  occasionally  an  elementary  course  is  scheduled 
in  the  first  year.  The  general  practice  seems  to  favor  placing 
the  subject  in  the  fourth  year.  While  less  than  a  half  year  is 
sometimes  reported  as  given  to  this  study,  most  high  schools 
give  at  least  a  half  year  and  many  schools  now  devote  a  full 
year  of  four  or  five  hours  a  week  to  civic  instruction.  The  large 
number  of  city  schools  now  giving  a  full  year  course  indicates 
the  growing  desire  on  the  part  of  the  public  schools  to  fulfill 
in  a  more  effective  manner  the  duty  of  providing  better  civic 
training.  While  it  is  difficult  for  any  but  the  large  high  schools 
to  make  provision  for  a  full  year,  it  is  very  evident  that  the 
subject  is  of  such  significance  and  the  content  so  extensive  that 
a  full  year  is  considered  very  desirable  wherever  such  an  arrange- 
ment can  be  made.  In  the  readjustment  of  studies  in  the  social- 
ized high  school  there  seems  to  be  little  question  but  that  a  full 


ADVANCED  CIVICS  IN  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS       51 

year  will  be  allotted  to  social  science  and  that  the  major  portion 
of  this  course  will  be  devoted  to  the  study  of  government.  Some 
teachers  of  the  subject  favor  the  giving  of  one-half  year  to  civics 
and  community  problems  in  the  first  year  high  school  and  a 
half  year  to  an  advanced  study  of  the  problems  of  government 
and  political  institutions  in  the  fourth  year.  Whatever  may  be 
the  decision  as  to  the  best  arrangement  in  the  curriculum  there 
can  be  little  doubt  from  many  indications  in  the  replies  that  a 
full  year  will  soon  be  granted  for  the  study  of  civic  affairs  in  the 
high  schools  which  provide  four  years  of  secondary  instruction. 

3.  (a)  Text-Books. 

A  great  variety  of  text-books  are  in  use,  two  types  of  which 
are  worthy  of  special  mention.  First,  there  is  a  form  of  text- 
book dealing  with  the  subject  in  a  general  way  and  designed  for 
use  in  the  public  schools  of  any  one  of  the  states.  As  a  rule,  these 
text-books  deal  rather  fully  with  the  federal  government  and  in  a 
general  way  with  state  and  local  government.  A  few  aim  to  give 
special  attention  to  the  fundamental  principles  involved  in 
government  and  politics.  Frequently  they  begin  with  local 
affairs  and  proceed  to  national.  Among  those  which  are  widely 
used  are  the  following: 

James  and  Sanford,  "Government  in  State  and  Nation"; 
Garner,  "  Government  in  the  United  States" ;  Ashley,  "American 
Government";  Forman,  "Advanced  Civics";  Beard,  "American 
Citizenship";  Moses,  "The  Government  of  the  United  States"; 
Boynton,  "School  Civics";  Hinsdale,  "The  American  Govern- 
ment;" Guitteau,  "Government  and  Politics  hi  the  United 
States." 

Another  type  of  book  which  is  frequently  used,  sometimes  as 
the  only  text-book  in  the  course,  and  often  as  a  supplementary 
text  to  one  of  the  works  mentioned  above,  aims  to  deal  ex- 
haustively with  the  system  of  government  of  an  individual  state. 

Efforts  have  been  made  to  adapt  a  general  type  of  text-book 


52  THE  TEACHING  OF  GOVERNMENT 

to  individual  states  in  the  preparation  of  state  editions,  the  gen- 
eral portion  of  the  work  being  supplemented  on  state  and  local 
affairs  by  some  representative  of  the  public  school  of  the  state, 
thus  rendering  the  book  of  special  local  interest  and  value. 

(b)  Supplementary  Books. 

The  time  allotted  to  the  course  in  civics  is  frequently  so  short 
and  the  interest  and  preparation  of  the  teachers  are  such  that 
supplementary  reference  books  are  not  used  to  any  extent. 
However,  in  a  gratifying  number  of  cases  supplementary  books 
are  in  constant  and  effective  use.  Among  the  books  most  fre- 
quently mentioned  are: 

Bryce,  " American  Commonwealth  ";  Hart,  "Actual  Govern- 
ment"; Haskin,  "The  American  Government";  Willoughby, 
"Rights  and  Duties  of  Citizenship  ";  Beard,  "American  Govern- 
ment and  Politics";  the  volumes  of  the  "American  State 
Series"  edited  by  W.  W.  Willoughby;  Kaye,  "Readings  in  Civil 
Government";  Hart  and  McLaughlin,  "Cyclopedia  of  Ameri- 
can Government";  Reinsch,  "Readings  in  American  Federal  and 
State  Government";  Munro,  "The  Government  of  American 
Cities";  Goodnow,  "Municipal  Government";  Beard,  "Amer- 
ican City  Government."  Other  works  are  occasionally  men- 
tioned, and  some  instructors  indicate  the  use  of  an  extensive 
list  of  reference  material.  The  most  important  thing  is  the  evi- 
dence that  the  old  method  of  confining  the  study  to  a  single 
text  is  fast  disappearing. 

4.  Defects  of  text-books  now  in  use. 

Teachers  are  generally  disposed  to  criticise  the  present  texts 
now  available  for  class  use.  The  most  common  objections  are: 
first,  that  they  are  dry  and  uninteresting  in  style;  second,  that 
they  give  an  excessive  amount  of  detail  on  matters  of  little 
interest  and  value  to  the  average  high  school  pupil  and  neglect 
entirely  other  matters  of  more  vital  concern;  third,  that  they 


ADVANCED  CIVICS  IN  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS       53 

give  as  a  rule  a  most  inadequate  treatment  of  current  problems 
and  matters  of  great  interest  to  citizens;  fourth,  that  too  little 
emphasis  is  given  to  local  government,  i.  e.,  to  the  political  and 
social  institutions  of  community  life.  There  is  an  evident 
tendency  on  the  part  of  teachers  to  make  use  of  the  texts  now 
available  for  a  portion  of  the  course  and  to  supplement  the  work 
with  special  outlines  and  guides  for  the  study  of  local  affairs. 
Teachers  are  beginning  to  find  it  necessary  to  prepare  outlines 
adapted  to  the  needs  of  a  particular  community  and  thus  to 
supplement  a  text  on  general  civics  with  a  carefully  planned 
guide  on  local  government  and  community  affairs.  Such  guides 
have  been  prepared  and  are  being  successfully  used  in  typical 
local  communities,  for  example,  the  "  Government  of  Rockford 
and  Winnebago  Counties  "  prepared  by  the  instructors  in  civil 
government  in  Rockford  High  School,  Rockford,  Illinois,  and  an 
outline  on  community  problems  such  as  that  now  in  use  in  Mish- 
awaka  High  School,  Mishawaka,  Indiana. 

Teachers  seem  to  be  of  the  opinion,  as  a  rule,  that  text-books 
in  civics  are  capable  of  considerable  improvement  although  it  is 
often  suggested  that  the  present  text-books  can  be  used  with  a 
fair  degree  of  effectiveness  when  supplemented  in  a  definite 
fashion  with  respect  to  local  governmental  affairs. 

5.  Time  allotted  to  course  in  civics:  Should  it  be  increased  or  de- 
creased and  how  much? 

While  the  answers  to  this  question  vary  greatly,  some  teachers 
being  satisfied  with  the  present  arrangement  and  many  more 
being  greatly  dissatisfied,  a  few  general  conclusions  are  evident 
in  the  replies.  In  the  first  place,  an  overwhelming  number 
favor  an  increase  of  the  time  now  given  to  the  subject.  In  many 
cases  where  a  half  year  is  given  it  is  recommended  that  this 
time  be  doubled.  It  is  only  where  there  is  at  present  a  full  year 
of  four  or  five  hours  a  week  that  there  is  a  disposition  to  regard 
the  time  as  sufficient.  It  is  very  evident  that  less  than  a  half 


54  THE  TEACHING  OF  GOVERNMENT 

year  is  totally  inadequate  and  that  the  course  in  civics  com- 
prised of  a  few  generalizations  emphasized  in  a  course  of  several 
weeks  is  almost  universally  condemned.  It  is  evident  that  a 
half  year  to  the  subject  fails  to  meet  the  needs  and  the 
necessary  requirements  of  a  course  in  civics  such  as  ought  now 
to  be  given  in  secondary  schools.  The  chief  difficulty  with  the 
present  course  in  civics  seems  to  be  summed  up  in  the  one  phrase, 
"Lack  of  time."  As  teacher  after  teacher  puts  the  case,  "Our 
need  is  very  evident  .  .  .  TIME." 

Additional  time  for  the  instruction  may  be  provided,  it  is 
thought,  in  the  following  ways:  first,  it  is  suggested  that  less  time 
might  be  given  to  ancient  and  mediaeval  history  provided  the 
ancient  periods  were  not  so  extensively  treated.  Other  subjects 
selected  for  a  reduction  in  order  to  give  time  to  civics  are  algebra 
and  Latin.  The  general  consensus  of  opinion  is,  however,  that 
it  is  not  necessary  to  modify  greatly  the  present  curriculum 
or  to  reduce  seriously  the  time  given  to  other  standard  subjects 
in  order  to  find  the  necessary  time  for  a  thorough  and  adequate 
course  in  government  instruction.  Only  a  slight  readjustment  is 
necessary  to  provide  in  the  school  curriculum  that  type  of  civic 
instruction  which  modern  conditions  demand  and  which  the 
social  awakening  in  community  life  requires.  The  real  need 
lies  rather  in  the  acceptance  of  a  new  point  of  view  and  the 
adoption  of  more  modern  methods  of  instruction. 

6.  Time  given  to 

(a)  National  Government. 

(b)  State  Government. 

(c)  Local  Government. 

(d)  Municipal  Government. 

A  majority  of  teachers  of  civics  at  the  present  time  give  the 
national  government  first  place,  using  anywhere  from  30%  to 
75%  of  the  time.  The  common  arrangement  is  to  give  50%  to 
the  national  government  and  50%  to  state,  local,  and  municipal 


ADVANCED  CIVICS  IN  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS       55 

government.  This  arrangement  is  considerably  modified  in 
places  where  local  government  is  stressed.  Here  it  is  customary 
to  find  about  25%  given  to  national  government,  about  25%  to 
state  government  and  the  remaining  time  is  given  to  community 
affairs.  Throughout  the  suggestions  made  as  to  change  of  time 
it  is  apparent  that  instructors  favor  giving  a  great  deal  more 
attention  to  local  government  than  is  now  customary  in  any 
but  a  comparatively  few  schools. 

7.  Emphasis  placed  on: 

(a)  Organization  and  operation  of  government. 

(b)  Community  functions  and  duties  and  obligations  of  citizens. 
The  practice  in  most  high  schools  seems  to  be  to  divide  the 

course  evenly,  giving  one-half  to  organization  and  the  other  half 
to  community  functions.  A  difference  of  opinion  is  apparent 
here  in  that  the  advocates  of  the  old  style  of  civics  favor  giving 
most  of  the  time  to  government  organization,  whereas  the  newer 
viewpoint  now  prevailing  in  many  schools  encourages  greater 
attention  to  community  functions  and  the  duties  of  citizen- 
ship. About  an  even  distribution  appears  to  be  the  arrange- 
ment which  is  meeting  with  the  greatest  success. 

8.  Use  of  devices  to  supplement  instruction  such  as: 

(a)  Civic  scrap  book. 

(b)  Regular  drill  in  current  events. 

(c)  Debate  on  public  questions. 

(d)  Reading  of  nonpartisan  periodicals. 

(e)  Talks  to  class  by  public  officials. 
(/)  Other  devices. 

Many  instructors  indicate  in  their  reports  that  either  through 
lack  of  time  or  through  want  of  interest  in  the  practical  side  of 
the  subject  these  devices  are  neglected.  On  the  other  hand,  a 
surprising  number  of  teachers  have  begun  to  vitalize  the  ordi- 
nary class  and  book  instruction  with  one  or  more  and  frequently 


56  THE  TEACHING  OF  GOVERNMENT 

all  of  the  above  devices.  Such  periodicals  as  the  "  Independent," 
"  Outlook,"  "Pathfinder,"  "Current  Events,"  "Literary  Digest," 
"Review  of  Reviews,"  "World's  Work,"  etc.,  are  used  specific- 
ally by  classes  in  order  to  create  an  interest  and  develop  a  knowl- 
edge of  current  public  issues.  The  policy  of  asking  city  officials 
to  speak  before  classes  and  to  explain  the  operation  of  govern- 
ment departments  is  a  practice  which  is  followed  with  marked 
success  by  many  teachers.  It  is  now  commonly  recognized 
that  the  supplementary  study  of  public  questions  and  an  in- 
terest in  current  events  must  be  encouraged  in  every  way 
possible  in  order  to  render  the  course  interesting  as  well  as 
useful. 

9,  10,  ii.    Field  investigation,  study  of  government  reports,  and 

the  preparation  of  surveys  on  local  government. 
From  the  many  reports  received  it  is  evident  that  the  method 
of  encouraging  field  investigation  as  well  as  a  definite  and  con- 
crete study  of  government  reports  is  receiving  acceptance  slowly 
by  teachers  of  government.  However,  in  many  of  the  city  high 
schools  field  investigation  is  carried  on  quite  successfully  and 
the  reports  are  made  the  basis  for  a  criticism  and  analysis  of 
the  efficiency  of  the  various  government  departments.  Many  of 
those  who  have  begun  to  stress  community  functions  by  means 
of  observations  and  field  investigation  have  found  the  survey 
an  invaluable  asset  in  the  effort  to  study  and  report  more  ef- 
fectively upon  various  phases  of  local  government.  From  all  in- 
dications it  seems  quite  apparent  that  the  survey  will  come  to 
be  an  important  adjunct  in  encouraging  the  special  study  of  local 
government  and  in  the  gathering  of  valuable  material  for  class 
discussion.  No  other  method  gives  such  a  vital  touch  and  inter- 
est to  civics  teaching  as  does  the  survey  with  respect  to  the  ef- 
fectiveness or  ineffectiveness  of  the  government  in  dealing  with 
the  problems  growing  out  of  community  needs.  The  pos- 
sibilities of  field  investigation  and  surveys  made  under  the 


ADVANCED  CIVICS  IN  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS       57 

direction   of  departments  of   civics  have   only  begun  to  be 
appreciated. 

12.  Pupil  participation  in  school  management. 

The  development  of  a  civic  conscience  through  placing  re- 
sponsibilities upon  high  school  students  in  the  management  of 
school  affairs  is  now  recognized  as  one  of  the  very  best  means  of 
developing  civic  methods  as  well  as  the  civic  viewpoint.  Many 
schools  place  practically  all  student  activities  in  charge  of  a 
board  of  control,  and  matters  of  discipline  are  left  in  part  at 
least  under  student  management.  Self-government  is  one  of  the 
well  recognized  and  generally  approved  methods  of  putting 
civic  knowledge  into  practice.  There  are  few  schools  which 
do  not  use  pupil  participation  in  school  management  to  some 
extent.  In  the  recent  progress  toward  democratic  management 
in  political  affairs  it  is  especially  desirable  to  encourage  the 
extension  of  such  participation  and  the  placing  of  greater  re- 
sponsibility upon  high  school  pupils.  That  pupils  have 
measured  up  to  this  responsibility  is  the  report  of  a  majority 
of  those  who  have  given  the  matter  a  trial.  That  such  partici- 
pation is  a  natural  corollary  to  effective  civic  teaching  and  to 
the  preparation  of  citizens  for  later  participation  in  democratic 
government  few  will  attempt  to  deny.  All  who  are  interested 
in  modern  educational  development  look  with  hope  and  con- 
fidence to  the  growth  of  this  sentiment  of  democracy  and  to 
the  extension  of  self  government  which  has  gained  headway 
slowly  in  our  public  school  system. 

13.  In  answer  to  the  question  whether  instructors  regarded 
their  course  in  government  as  adequate  to  train  for  citizenship, 
very  few  seem  to  feel  satisfied  with  the  results  at  present  attained. 
The  chief  reasons  for  dissatisfaction  seem  to  be  suggested  under 
the  headings,  lack  of  time,  inability  to  create  vital  interest  in  the 
subject,  too  much  formal  instruction,  too  little  practical  touch  with 
actual  a/airs,  insufficiency  of  civic  material,  and  too  little  aid  to 


58  THE  TEACHING  OF  GOVERNMENT 

teachers  desiring  to  improve  their  courses.  Where  community 
civics  is  taught  there  is  a  disposition  to  feel  that  the  course  does 
train  adequately  for  citizenship,  but  the  older  type  of  civic 
training  is  seldom  defended. 

14.  Preparation  of  teachers. 

The  information  presented  relative  to  preparation  to  teach 
the  subject  of  government  is  of  peculiar  interest  and  value.  The 
failure  to  make  civics  of  real  worth  in  the  school  system  is 
apparently  due  to  the  fact  that  the  subject  is  too  frequently 
given  to  a  teacher  who  either  has  had  no  special  prepara- 
tion whatever  or  has  given  no  evidence  of  interest  in 
the  subject  throughout  his  preparatory  course.  That  this  un- 
fortunate condition  is  disappearing  is  quite  evident.  A  large 
number  of  teachers  report  that  they  not  only  have  completed 
an  ordinary  college  course  but  have  also  taken  advanced  work 
in  a  university,  and  many  times  it  is  stated  that  the  major 
subject  for  the  college  course  was  in  the  field  of  history,  govern- 
ment and  economics.  While  few  teachers  have  had  any  special 
preparation  for  the  teaching  of  civics,  many  have  undoubtedly 
had  an  excellent  groundwork  in  a  series  of  valuable  courses 
dealing  with  the  history  of  political  institutions  and  with  the 
theory  and  practice  of  government.  In  many  high  schools  the 
teacher  in  the  course  has  prepared  himself  specially  for  the  teach- 
ing of  his  subject,  and  has  developed  throughout  his  college 
course  the  modern  social  viewpoint  and  a  knowledge  of  institu- 
tions such  as  is  of  inestimable  value  to  supplement  the  ordinary 
text-book  material  and  method.  The  one  deplorable  fact  in  the 
reports  received  is  the  lack  of  the  proper  kind  of  training  to 
prepare  teachers  of  civics  for  their  important  work,  in  the  schools 
which  now  give  training  for  teachers  along  almost  every  other 
line.  But  little  improvement  in  the  teaching  of  the  subject 
can  be  hoped  for  until  training  schools  present  as  thorough 
instruction  for  the  teaching  of  civics  as  is  now  being 


ADVANCED  CIVICS  IN  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS       59 

given  for  the  teaching  of  mathematics,  languages,  and  the 
sciences. 

There  is  a  disposition  on  the  part  of  some  educators  to  think 
that  civics  can  be  effectively  taught  only  by  men.  The  error  in 
this  opinion  is  clearly  demonstrated  by  the  fact  that  many  of  the 
best  courses  now  given  in  the  new  civics  are  offered  by  women, 
and  it  is  evident  that  what  is  needed,  be  the  teacher  a  man  or  a 
woman,  is  adequate  training  and  the  social  viewpoint. 

15.  Suggestions  for  improvement  of  instruction. 

Merely  a  list  of  the  important  suggestions  offered  can  be 
given.  Those  which  the  committee  regards  as  of  primary  signif- 
icance are  included  in  a  subsequent  summary.  A  few  which  re- 
cur in  many  reports  are: 

1.  More  time  for  the  course  in  this  subject. 

2.  The  necessity  of  civic  instruction  in  the  grades. 

3.  Encourage  pupils  to  maintain  a  system  of  self-govern- 
ment. 

4.  Place  emphasis  on  local  government  and  good  citizen- 
ship. 

5.  Concerted  action  to  compel  colleges  to  give  admission 
credit  for  courses  in  civics. 

6.  More  and  better  collateral  material  such  as 

a.  Reference  books  on  government. 

b.  Maps  of  city,  county,  state  and  nation. 

c.  Periodicals  of  current  events. 

d.  City,  state  and  national  government  reports. 

e.  Legal  forms,  ballots,  etc. 

7.  Better  preparation  of  teachers. 

8.  Greater  use  of  the  problem  method  of  instruction. 

9.  More  economics,  government  and  sociology  in  the  high 
school  course  and  less  time  to  the  ancient  world  and  middle 
ages. 

10.  Greater  use  of  the  laboratory  method. 


60  THE  TEACHING  OF  GOVERNMENT 

11.  Greater  interest  by  the  government,  particularly  through 
departments  of  education,  in  the  improvement  of  civic  instruc- 
tion.   Systematic  outlines  for  such  instruction  should  be  pre- 
pared by  state  and  federal  departments  of  education. 

12.  More  field  investigation  and  less  text-book  work. 

13.  Compulsory  course  in  civics  for  eighth  or  ninth  grades 
and  a  compulsory  course  in  the  eleventh  or  twelfth  grades  in 
all  of  the  states. 

14.  Instruction  by  teachers  trained  in  government,  economics, 
and  sociology  rather  than  by  those  specializing  almost  solely 
in  history. 

15.  Students  should  visit  municipal  buildings,  court  houses, 
court  sessions,  etc.,  and  prepare  definite  reports  on  the  visits. 


SUMMARY  OF  RECOMMENDATIONS  APPROVED  BY  THE 
COMMITTEE 

1.  That  a  year  of  social  science  (exclusive  of  history)  be  given  in  the 
senior  high  school  of  which  at  least  a  half  year  shall  be  devoted 
to  the  study  of  government,  and  that  four  or  five  hours  per  week 
be  given  to  this  subject. 

2.  That  pressure  be  brought  to  bear  on  colleges  to  accept  a  full  year 
of  social  science  for  entrance  when  the  subject  is  effectively  taught. 
High  schools  are  much  less  likely  to  do  justice  to  this  branch  of 
study  as  long  as  colleges  either  accept  no  work  in  civics  or  give 
credit  for  only  a  half  unit. 

3.  Better  preparation  of  teachers.     Courses  in  normal  schools,  col- 
leges, and  universities  designed  to  prepare  teachers  of  government. 

4.  More  emphasis  on  local  affairs. 

5.  Better  material.    Collection  of  a  civics  library  with  reference  works, 
government  reports  and  pamphlet  literature  illustrating  all  phases 
of  government  work. 

6.  Instruction  to  be  made  more  practical.     Such  devices  are  par- 
ticularly recommended  as  observation  of  local  government  de- 
partments, surveys  of  local  conditions  and  talks  to  classes  by  of- 
ficials and  others  interested  in  governmental  problems. 

7.  Put  civic  instruction  into  practice  by  such  devices  as  self -govern- 


ADVANCED  CIVICS  IN  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS       61 

ment  in  school,  by  organizing  classes  on  the  model  of  government 
departments,  by  the  formation  of  civic  leagues  and  community 
clubs. 

8.  Cooperation  with  local  government  and  local  civic  bodies.  In- 
vitations to  city  officials  to  speak  before  the  class  and  encourage- 
ment of  students  to  visit  city  departments.  Cooperation  between 
chambers  of  commerce  can  be  secured  through  formation  of  junior 
civic  leagues  and  the  development  of  the  schools  as  community 
centers. 


General  Conclusions. 

That  the  civic  awakening  which  is  evident  in  many  schools  has 
permeated  only  a  part  of  the  public  school  system  is  apparent 
in  replies  from  individual  cities  as  well  as  in  the  state  courses 
of  study.  Such  comments  as  these  are  not  infrequent:  "No  reg- 
ular time  allotted;  the  work  is  taught  incidentally  " — "Taught 
only  in  connection  with  United  States  history  " — "No  special 
hours  for  civics  " — "  No  separate  course  at  present — subject 
is  taught  more  or  less  incidentally  in  the  High  School" — or  the 
comment  of  a  state  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction  "civics 
is  one  of  the  subjects  in  the  course  but  not  a  regular  study." 
And  certain  city  schools  merely  add  to  history  the  reading  of 
the  state  constitution  and  the  federal  Constitution. 

The  committee  is  obliged  to  report  that  as  a  rule  there  is  a 
deplorable  deficiency  in  definite  plans  for  courses  in  civics  and 
also  that  there  is  a  lack  of  anything  like  adequate  bibliographies. 
Instances  such  as  these  are  typical:  After  a  fairly  complete 
outline  of  all  other  subjects  in  the  curriculum  a  note  is  attached 
to  the  section  devoted  to  American  history  and  civics,  "time 
will  be  taken  for  civics  proper  ";  or,  "the  usual  aspects  of  the 
different  units  of  government  are  studied  in  detail."  Perchance 
a  heading,  "history  and  civics,"  is  given  with  no  indication 
whatever  in  the  statement  that  government  receives  considera- 
tion, or  bibliographies  are  appended  for  "history  and  civics" 
with  not  a  single  reference  to  works  on  government.  Some 


62  THE  TEACHING  OF  GOVERNMENT 

state  courses  of  study  give  no  indication  of  the  topics  compre- 
hended under  the  title  "civics  "  and  no  guide  whatever  to  the 
valuable  literature  available  for  teacher  and  student.  Evi- 
dence of  this  character  might  be  added  indefinitely,  but  it  is 
useless  to  multiply  instances.  A  letter  from  the  chairman  of  a 
state  committee  suffices  to  close  a  rather  discouraging  record 
of  the  present  situation  in  many  communities: 

At  the  end  of  a  letter  I  sent  out  with  each  questionnaire,  I  asked 
whether  it  was  thought  best  to  try  to  get  a  meeting  to  discuss  the 
teaching  of  government  before  our  annual  state  Teachers'  Association 
next  spring.  Each  member  I  heard  from  replied  in  the  negative, 
and  that  is  my  own  view  on  the  matter.  The  subject  of  Civics  Teach- 
ing has  been  neglected  so  long  in  the  state,  and  the  interest  is  so  poor, 
that  I  feel  sure  we  could  not  get  a  full  attendance  of  our  committee. 
Again,  if  we  have  the  work  that  your  committee  is  preparing  before 
us  as  a  guide  and  stimulus,  I  am  sure  it  will  be  much  easier  to  get 
something  done  when  we  do  meet. 

I  would  like  to  write  a  more  hopeful  and  encouraging  letter  than  this, 
but  the  truth  forbids.  No  subject  is  poorer  taught  in  the  rural  and 
graded  schools  than  government,  and  none  needs  attention  right  now 
more  than  it.  The  Normal  Schools  are  grappling  with  the  subject 
the  best  we  know  how,  and  conditions  will,  I  hope,  soon  improve. 

Perhaps  the  chief  reason  why  school  boards,  superintendents 
and  teachers  have  been  prone  to  ignore  civics  is  that  its  impor- 
tance and  the  subject-matter  involved  have  not  been  clearly 
brought  to  their  attention.  Few  of  the  courses  of  study  prepared 
by  state  or  city  departments  of  education  give  special  outlines 
for  courses  in  civics  and  seldom  are  bibliographies  suggested. 
A  subject  which  is  mentioned  incidentally  in  connection  with 
history,  geography  or  ethics  and  which  appears  worthy  of  only 
a  few  lines  in  a  hundred  page  outline  is  not  likely  to  be  given  a 
prominent  place  in  the  curriculum  by  teachers  who  depend 
upon  such  guides.  No  great  improvement  can  be  expected  until 
those  who  prepare  the  school  programs  give  as  much  care  and 


ADVANCED  CIVICS  IN  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS       63 

attention  to  providing  for  civic  instruction  as  is  given  to  other 
subjects.  Outlines  by  grades  with  references  for  teacher  and 
pupil  are  indispensable,  and  some  of  the  more  recent  programs 
issued  give  promise  of  better  things  for  those  interested  in  the 
improvement  of  training  for  citizenship. 

The  time  has  come  to  cease  berating  teachers  of  other  sub- 
jects for  preempting  the  field  and  superintendents  and  princi- 
pals for  failing  to  give  due  consideration  to  the  vital  matter  of 
training  for  citizenship.  All  agree  that  more  time  and  attention 
should  be  given  to  this  subject  than  is  usually  allotted.  The 
sole  difficulty  now  is  the  determination  as  to  what  shall  be  in- 
cluded in  this  course  and  how  that  which  is  selected  shall  be 
presented.  While  many  organizations  and  individuals  have 
busied  themselves  with  pointing  out  the  deficiencies  of  the 
schools  in  this  regard,  few  have  set  themselves  to  the  task  of 
preparing  constructive  suggestions  and  material  to  aid  both 
administrators  and  instructors.  What  is  needed  now  above 
everything  else  is  an  effort  to  direct  the  movement  which  is  well 
on  its  way  to  bring  instruction  in  civics  to  a  foremost  place 
among  the  required  subjects  of  elementary  and  secondary  schools. 

A  few  illustrations  of  the  progress  made  in  city  schools  will 
indicate  the  rapid  improvement  which  is  being  made  in  the 
direction  of  remedying  former  defects.  Within  the  past  few 
years  special  outlines  have  been  prepared  introducing  civic  les- 
sons in  the  early  grades  and  continuing  the  study  throughout 
the  elementary  school.  This  introductory  work  is  then  followed 
by  three  to  four  years  of  social  science  in  the  high  school.  The 
plans  of  Two  Rivers,  Wisconsin,  Marshalltown,  Iowa,  and  Berke- 
ley, California,  are  notable  examples  of  this  kind  which  have 
been  brought  to  the  attention  of  the  committee.  It  is  grati- 
fying to  state  that  many  cities  are  beginning  to  introduce  a 
study  of  community  and  civic  relations  in  the  early  grades 
and  that  this  study  takes  the  form  of  a  definite  consideration 
of  the  functions  of  government  usually  introduced  in  the 


64  THE  TEACHING  OF  GOVERNMENT 

seventh  or  eighth  grade.  These  elementary  foundations  are 
supplemented  and  developed  in  the  high  school  in  a  separate 
course  for  a  half  year  at  least  and  in  many  instances  for  an  entire 
year.  In  some  cases  the  material  and  content  for  both  elemen- 
tary and  high  school  courses  are  worked  out  with  a  carefully 
arranged  sequence  of  topics  and  select  bibliographies,  such  for 
example  as  the  outline  study  for  Yonkers,  N.  Y.,  in  grades  3, 
4,  and  5;  the  course  of  study  in  civil  government  for  use  in  the 
Louisville  schools  for  the  6th,  yth,  and  8th  grades;  that  of  Jersey 
City,  covering  grades  5,  6,  7,  and  8;  and  the  systematic  lessons 
of  Salt  Lake  City  in  grades  1-8.  Mention  may  be  made  of 
the  outline  for  geography,  history,  and  civics  in  the  elementary 
schools  of  Indianapolis,  the  outline  for  civic  and  vocational 
studies  of  Cincinnati,  and  the  outline  for  social  science  prepared 
by  the  state  department  of  education  in  North  Dakota  as  in- 
stances of  progress  in  the  right  direction.  Among  the  states  in 
which  the  state  departments  of  education  have  issued  well 
prepared  outlines  are  Maine  and  New  York. 

The  course  of  study  in  ethics  used  in  the  St.  Louis  schools 
deals  with  many  phases  of  civic  conduct  and  presents  lessons 
on  rights,  duties,  and  the  necessity  of  a  knowledge  of  community 
functions.  For  an  application  of  the  study  of  civil  government 
to  local  affairs  the  Schenectady  course  in  history,  geography  and 
civics  is  suggestive;  for  special  emphasis  on  city  government, 
the  eighth  grade  civics  in  Erie,  Pennsylvania.  The  laboratory 
method  and  the  actual  study  of  government  in  operation  is 
used  with  remarkable  success  in  many  city  high  schools.  A 
committee  was  recently  appointed  by  the  Superintendent  of 
Schools  of  Philadelphia  to  revise  the  civics  course  in  the  elemen- 
tary schools  of  the  city.  It  is  planned  to  have  civics  in  the  eight 
grades  of  the  elementary  school.  There  are  many  other  instances 
of  a  sincere  effort  to  improve  and  vitalize  the  study  of  civics 
and  to  make  it  a  separate  study  in  the  school  curriculum,  but 
only  these  few  typical  instances  can  be  cited. 


ADVANCED  CIVICS  IN  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS       65 

II.  Some  Data  on  the  Training  of  Teachers. 

A.  Normal  Schools. 

If  one  were  to  seek  for  the  chief  cause  of  the  deficiencies  in 
the  teaching  of  civics  in  the  public  schools  that  cause  might 
readily  be  discovered  in  the  utterly  inadequate  and  ineffective 
training  received  by  those  who  teach  the  subject.  The  de- 
ficiency in  this  regard  will  be  considered  with  respect  first  to  the 
normal  schools  and  second  to  the  colleges  and  universities.  It 
has  been  impossible  to  secure  reports  from  all  of  the  normal 
schools,  but  from  the  results  obtained  through  several  of  the 
state  committees1  some  representative  facts  are  available  rela- 
tive to  civic  instruction  in  normal  schools.  These  facts  are 
presented  merely  as  illustrative  of  present  conditions. 

Provision  for  the  training  of  teachers  of  civics  can  be  dis- 
posed of  for  many  such  schools  with  the  one  word  nothing.  What 
percentage  of  schools  are  to  be  ranked  in  this  class  cannot  be 
determined,  but  reports  available  would  indicate  that  a  large 
percentage  make  no  effort  to  give  instruction  to  prospective 
teachers.  A  typical  instance  of  this  kind  is  shown  in  the  report 
on  the  normal  schools  of  one  of  the  states: 

There  are  three  normal  schools  in  this  state,  two  of  which  report 
that  they  are  offering  regular  courses  in  civics  and  they  classify  these 
courses  as  of  high  school  rank.  One  normal  school  offers  no  civics  of 
any  kind. 

These  courses  are  in  charge  of  teachers  who  have  had  no  special 
preparation  for  the  work,  and  none  of  the  devices  suited  to  this  work 
are  in  use. 

The  courses  of  study  in  the  normal  are  already  overcrowded,  and 
it  will  be  difficult  to  find  time  for  an  adequate  presentation  of  the 
subject  of  civics. 

The  men  who  reported  upon  the  work  in  the  two  normals  where 
civics  is  taught  do  not  hesitate  to  say  that  the  ordinary  teacher  going 
out  from  the  institutions  is  not  qualified  to  teach  this  subject.2 

1  See  Appendix. 

2  Submitted  by  H.  C.  Crumpacker  of  the  Washington  state  committee. 


66  THE  TEACHING  OF  GOVERNMENT 

A  similar  situation  is  to  be  found  in  New  Jersey  in  which  a 
state  committee  reports:  "The  subject  of  civics  is  not  mentioned 
in  the  courses  of  study  of  the  normal  schools." 

Somewhat  more  encouraging  replies  come  from  some  of  the 
states.  The  California  state  committee  reports: 


The  normal  school  situation  in  California  is  peculiar.  We  have 
eight  normals.  One  is  so  new  as  to  be  hardly  organized.  A  second  is 
devoted  to  training  teachers  in  home  economics  and  manual  arts. 
Of  the  remaining  six,  I  finally  obtained  some  communication  from 
five.  From  their  reports,  on  instruction,  I  find  no  uniform  practice. 
There  seems  to  be  a  general  tendency  to  accept  the  high  school  his- 
tory and  civics  as  sufficient  if  upon  proper  credentials  or  examination 
it  appears  that  the  pupil  did  his  high  school  work  well.  In  this  con- 
nection, you  should  know  that  students  in  the  California  normal 
schools  must  hold  high  school  diplomas.  In  one  case,  the  work  in 
history  is  done  with  the  normal  students  when  they  are  in  the  training 
school,  teaching  the  American  history  to  eighth  grade  pupils.  They 
are  asked  to  hand  in  reports  and,  in  groups,  to  meet  the  head  of  the 
history  department.  Generally,  no  text-book  is  used.  Frequent 
use  seems  to  be  made  of  the  ordinary  high  school  text  and  of  Bryce's 
"American  Commonwealth  "  (Abr.  ed.).  The  methods  of  instruction 
used  are  generally  the  same  as  used  by  the  high  school  teachers,  except 
that  more  emphasis  is  placed  upon  lectures  by  the  instructor  and 
upon  the  outlines  and  readings  of  the  student.  They  all  agree  in 
beginning  civics  with  the  local  government  and  seem  to  prefer 
the  functions  of  government  following  the  machinery  of  govern- 
ment. 


In  Missouri,  for  example,  courses  in  civics  are  offered  though 
little  attention  is  given  to  methods  of  teaching  the  subject. 
Provision  is  made  for  the  training  of  teachers  in  Oregon  normal 
schools,  and  in  the  normal  schools,  state  university  and  agricul- 
tural college  of  New  Mexico.  The  programs  of  normal  schools 
in  a  few  states  which  offer  special  instruction  for  prospective 
teachers  are  given  by  way  of  illustration  as  to  what  can  be  done 
to  improve  civic  instruction. 


ADVANCED  CIVICS  IN  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS       67 

(a)  Illinois  State  Normal  University  at  Normal,  Illinois. 

1.  A  twelve  weeks'  course  in  political  science  for  upper  grades. 

2.  A  year  course  in  political  science,  political  parties,  and  munic- 

ipal problems, — for  prospective  high  school  teachers. 

3.  Two  years'  work  in  sociology,  advanced  economics,  and  industrial 

history. 

A  half  unit  in  civil  government  and  one  and  a  half  units  in  history 
are  required  of  all  students  for  admission  to  the  normal  school.  They 
may  present  five  additional  units  in  this  field  if  they  choose.  Teach- 
ers of  upper  grades  may  take  a  twelve  weeks'  course  in  political  science 
in  the  fall  term  of  the  senior  year.  A  student  expecting  to  teach 
civics  would  take  the  year's  work  in  political  science,  political  parties, 
and  municipal  problems.  We  should  expect  him  to  take  also  the  two 
years'  work  in  sociology,  advanced  economics,  and  industrial  history 
and  in  addition  to  these  as  many  courses  in  history  as  he  may  see  fit 
to  elect. 

(6)  Western  Illinois  State  Normal  School,  Macomb,  Illinois. 
Three  courses  are  offered  for  the  first  time: 

1.  Course  for  country  school  teachers  based  on  Beard's  "Citizen- 

ship." 

2.  Course  for  academic   students,  based  on  Garner's  text  and 

Child's  "Government  in  Illinois." 

3.  Course  for  normal  school  students,  using  Guitteau  as  a  text, 

with  assigned  readings. 

(c)  Southern  Illinois  State  Normal  University,  Carbondale,  Illinois. 

The  method  of  study  and  instruction  provides  for  a  study  of  sub- 
jects rather  than  the  text,  though  we  find  the  text  very  satisfactory. 
Comparisons  between  our  political  institutions  and  those  of  other 
countries  are  made.  This  is  chiefly  the  work  of  the  teacher.  Talks 
are  sometimes  made  by  men  who  have  wide  knowledge  or  experience 
in  the  practical  workings  of  the  various  phases  of  our  political  institu- 
tions. A  member  of  the  legislature,  or  congress,  or  a  judge,  can  bring 
a  discussion  very  close  to  the  pupils.  Emphasis  is  also  placed  upon 
our  civil  institutions  in  the  various  history  courses  which  precede 
and  follow  the  course  in  civics. 

We  are  more  and  more  separating  our  work  in  this  subject  into 
"Problems  in  Civics,"  and  a  "Description  of  the  Civil  Machinery." 
The  problems  in  civics  open  a  wide  field  all  about  us,  whether  we 
live  in  rural  communities  or  in  city  organizations.  There  are  ten 


68  THE  TEACHING  OF  GOVERNMENT 

opportunities  for  the  exercise  of  an  independent  judgment  in  the 
study  of  civic  problems  to  one  in  the  study  of  our  civil  machinery.1 

In  the  Kentucky  state  normal  at  Richmond  two  years'  work 
in  civics  is  offered,  the  elementary  course  is  based  on  Forman's 
"Elements  of  Civil  Government"  and  the  advanced  upon  Garner's 
"  Government  in  the  United  States  "  along  with  Keith's  "  Notes 
and  Outlines  in  Civil  Government."  Books  such  as  Bryce's 
"American  Commonwealth,"  Garner's  "Introduction  to  Political 
Science,"  Willoughby's  "Rights  and  Duties  of  American  Citi- 
zenship," and  Beard's  "American  Government  and  Politics," 
along  with  current  magazines,  are  used  for  select  supplementary 
readings.2  The  West  Kentucky  Normal  at  Bowling  Green 
gives  a  course  of  ten  weeks  based  on  Stickles,  "  Elements  of 
Government."  Supplementary  readings  are  used  extensively 
and  also  various  devices  to  create  an  interest  in  practical  af- 
fairs.3 

The  normal  schools  of  North  Dakota  give  a  required  course 
of  5  hours  for  3  months  based  upon  books  such  as  Guitteau  and 
'Government  of  North  Dakota  "  by  Boyle.  Special  devices  in 
the  way  of  clippings,  class  government  and  study  of  current 
problems  are  made  use  of  to  increase  interest.4  In  Minnesota 
the  schools  devote  12  weeks  to  this  work  and  one  school  extends 
the  time  to  24  weeks.  Texts,  reference  readings  and  the  direct 
study  of  local  government  are  employed.  One  instructor  re- 
ports "Laboratory  method  is  used,  i.  e.,  direct  study  of  what- 
ever public  business  is  going  on.  Current  events  are  studied  by 
means  of  periodicals  and  class  discussions.  Class  organizes 
as  club  and  as  such  conducts  parliamentary  meetings  and  is 
in  turn  town  meeting,  legislature  and  congress.  This  club  also 

1  Furnished  by  the  Illinois  state  committee. 

2  Furnished  by  Professor  Charles  A.  Keith,  head  of  department  of  His- 
tory and  Civics. 

3  Furnished  by  Professor  A.  M.  Stickles,  Chairman  of  Kentucky  Com- 
mittee. 

4  Furnished  by  state  committee  for  North  Dakota. 


ADVANCED  CIVICS  IN  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS        69 

attempts  to  give  actual  practice  to  civic  virtues  both  personally 
and  cooperatively  by,  e.  g., — keeping  campus  clean— planting 
shrubs — protecting  birds— having  club  entertainments,  urging 
needed  public  action."  l 

That  civics  in  training  schools  for  teachers  need  not  be  neg- 
lected or  ignored  is  indicated  in  the  course  of  study  of  the  normal 
training  school  of  the  University  of  Utah.  Civics  receives  at- 
tention in  the  work  offered  to  teachers  for  all  of  the  grades.  In 
the  first  grade  the  home,  family  and  occupations  are  treated 
as  contributing  to  the  daily  life  of  the  children.  Matters  of 
trading,  industry  and  the  school  community  are  considered  in 
grade  two.  A  more  specialized  study  of  occupations  and  social 
activities  of  the  community  follows.  The  city  organization  in 
its  most  important  departments  is  introduced  in  grade  four, 
ventilation  and  sanitation  in  grade  five  and  matters  of  civic 
improvement  and  civic  beauty  in  grade  six.  Grades  seven  and 
eight  introduce  the  political  organization  of  the  city  and  the 
beginning  of  a  study  of  state  and  national  government.  More- 
over, in  the  University  of  Utah  every  student  who  is  preparing 
to  teach  history  and  civics  is  required  to  take  a  course  in  polit- 
ical science  which  comprises  a  specialized  study  of  the  govern- 
ment of  the  United  States  and  the  general  principles  of  political 
science.2 

Among  the  states  in  which  liberal  provisions  are  made  for 
the  training  of  civics  teachers  is  Wisconsin.  The  State  Normal 
at  Oshkosh  gives  two  courses — one  to  prepare  teachers  in  the 
grammar  grades,  another  for  teachers  in  high  schools.  Full 
outlines  are  prepared  for  these  courses  based  on  the  constitutions 
of  Wisconsin  and  the  United  States  and  including  a  study  of 
select  problems  and  matters  of  current  interest  throughout 
the  course.  These  outlines  show  how  the  old  formal  method  of 
civic  study  may  be  vitalized  by  constant  reference  to  current 

1  Furnished  by  state  committee  for  Minnesota. 

2  Furnished  by  the  state  committee  for  Utah. 


70  THE  TEACHING  OF  GOVERNMENT 

conditions  and  problems.  The  School  at  Platteville  also  offers 
two  courses  on  a  similar  plan.  A  statement  of  courses  offered 
and  methods  pursued  at  Milwaukee  and  River  Falls  are  given 
as  illustrations  of  some  suggestive  courses  offered  in  normal 
schools: 

State  Normal,  Milwaukee. 

Civics.  Twelve  weeks,  five  times  a  week,  class  period  50  min.  re- 
quired of  all  students  in  the  senior  year. 

Closely  related  with  sociology,  both  subjects  being  taught  by  the 
same  teacher. 

Both  the  academic  and  professional  sides  of  the  subject  are  stressed. 
The  city  of  Milwaukee  course  of  study  covers  the  subjects  of  police- 
man, fireman,  garbage  disposal,  lighthouse,  street  cleaning,  weather 
bureau,  common  council,  a  general  civic  knowledge  of  the  city. 

Our  course  trains  teachers  to  this  end  and  by  adaptation  fits  all 
teachers  to  teach  in  any  community. 

The  aim  is  to  relate  civics  to  the  everyday  life  of  the  pupil,  not  only 
by  furnishing  knowledge,  but  also  by  arousing  the  desire  and  will  to 
do  for  his  community  those  acts  which  make  for  good  citizenship. 

In  connection  with  this  work  teachers  are  taught  to  tell  stories 
exemplifying  deeds  of  civic  valor,  poems  are  learned  bearing  upon  the 
same  subject  and  students  are  familiarized  with  literature  bearing 
upon  the  subject. 

Visits  are  paid  to  the  fire  department,  health  department,  city  hall, 
garbage  plant,  city  courts,  etc. 

Out  of  this  study  arises  the  subject  of  taxes. 

Students  are  required,  to  make  out  lesson  plans  for  teaching  the 
subjects  in  grades  3-7. 

They  are  also  taught  how  to  prepare  the  pupil  for  the  use  of  the 
text-book  and  how  to  use  the  text  intelligently. 

River  Falls,  Wisconsin. 
Foreword: 

The  courses  in  civics  offered  in  River  Falls  state  normal  school 
proceed  upon  the  belief  that  the  day  of  the  old  cut-and-dried  course 
in  civil  government,  with  its  memorizing  of  the  constitutions  and 
detailed  analysis  of  government  forms  and  machinery  is  past.  We 
believe  that  from  the  time  the  child  enters  school  until  he  is  ready  to 
leave  it,  it  is  the  teacher's  business  to  socialize  him,  i.  e.,  to  make  him 


ADVANCED  CIVICS  IN  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS       71 

conscious  of  his  membership  in  several  communities  by  leading  him 
to  see  how  the  community  helps  him,  how  it  needs  him  and  how  he 
can  help  it. 

I.  Aims  in  all  courses  offered: 

(1)  Proceeding  from  the  home-life  and  school-life  as  basis  to  help 
the  student-teacher  to  realize  himself  a  responsible  and  help- 
ful member  of  several  social  groups. 

(2)  To  awaken  and  stimulate  motives  which  shall  find  their  culmi- 
nation in  law,  order,  cleanliness,  cheerful  cooperation,  and  sym- 
pathetic, intelligent  service. 

(3)  To  help  the  student  to  a  life  of  broadened  unselfishness  in- 
stead of    to    the    narrow    individualism  so  characteristic  of 
American  life.     In  other  words,  to  emphasize  the  intimate 
reciprocal   relation  between   individual  welfare  in  home-life 
and  social  welfare  in  community  life. 

(4)  To  train  in  citizenship  in  its  broadest,  most  social  sense  along 
such  lines  and  to  such  a  degree  as  will  enable  the  student 
to  effectually  assume  the  responsibilities  which  modern  com- 
munity life  thrusts  upon  him. 

(5)  To  develop  teachers  prepared  and  full  of  a  desire  to  give  such 
training  to  others  through  well  organized  courses  in  civics  in  all 
of  the  grades  in  the  schools  in  which  they  shall  work. 

Scope  of  Courses. 

Civics  A 

This  is  a  course  offered  to  the  sophomore  classes.  The  members 
of  this  class  are  of  about  sophomore  high  school  grade.  It  proceeds 
upon  the  assumption  that  most  of  these  people  will  teach  in  villages 
and  cities.  Accordingly  village  and  city  needs  are  emphasized,  but 
students  are  by  no  means  confined  to  what  the  local  communities 
do  and  can  do  to  meet  these  needs.  It  is  our  belief  that  the  so-called 
purely  "local  civics  "  fails  to  give  the  student  of  this  grade  the  essen- 
tial working  acquaintance  with  great  departments  of  activity  in  the 
larger  units  which  the  intelligent  citizen  needs. 

Topics  suggestive  of  work  done  in  Course  A. 

Pioneer  community  life  contrasted  with  modern  community  life; 
characteristics  of  modern  complex  industrial  life,  noting  interests 
and  needs  of  citizen  consumers,  citizen  wage  earners  and  citizen 


72  THE  TEACHING  OF  GOVERNMENT 

owners  in  various  industries;  protection  of  life,  health  and  property; 
care  of  unfortunate  classes;  conservation;  protection  of  laborers; 
regulation  of  public  utilities,  roads  and  streets;  recreation;  education; 
refuse  disposal  in  urban  districts;  the  schools  and  the  state;  community 
control  of  private  business;  social  centres;  conducting  the  people's 
business  from  neighborhood  to  nation;  social,  political  and  economic 
consequences  of  city  growth;  penal  reform;  making  of  Americans; 
juvenile  courts;  the  part  the  teacher  should  take  in  village  and  city 
life;  should  a  teacher  teach  the  truth  at  any  cost;  how  to  make  a 
community  survey. 

Civics  A.  i 

This  course  is  designed  to  meet  the  needs  of  those  who  are  planning 
to  teach  in  rural  schools.  (These  students,  as  a  rule,  are  of  about 
second  year  high  school  grade  though  there  are  some  who  are  high 
school  graduates.)  It  studies  many  of  the  problems  and  functions 
in  their  more  important  aspects  suggested  in  Course  A,  but  empha- 
sizes especially  rural  community  problems  and  activities. 

Topics  additional  to  some  of  those  suggested  in  Course  A:  Rural 
roads  and  road-sides,  connection  between  good  roads  and  social, 
economic  and  political  phases  of  rural  life;  rural  homes  and  their 
enemies;  rural  sanitation  and  hygiene;  waste  disposal  in  rural  com- 
munities; how  to  organize  improvement  associations  in  school;  how 
our  city  cousins  live;  how  the  rural  school  may  lead  the  community; 
how  to  get  the  aid  of  department  officials  in  solving  rural  problems; 
the  needs  of  rural  schools;  how  to  make  a  rural  survey. 

ADVANCED  Civics  (18  weeks) 

This  course  is  an  advanced  course  open  to  election  by  juniors, 
seniors  and  post-graduate  students.  It  is  designed  to  fit  the  needs  of 
those  students  desiring  to  make  a  more  thorough  study  of  the  lines 
of  work  suggested  in  Course  A.  In  it,  for  example,  party  government, 
methods  and  machinery  are  critically  studied;  evils  of  party  domina- 
tion in  local  affairs  are  described  and  discussed;  causes  and  effects 
of  rapid  urbanization  are  studied;  dangers  of  commercial  and  re- 
actionary domination  of  schools  are  pointed  out  in  order  that  the 
student  teacher  may  know  what  to  expect  and  prepare  against; 
recent  government  reforms  are  critically  considered;  the  "Wisconsin 
Idea"  is  analyzed  and  discussed;  the  dangers  of  newspapers  that  do 
not  publish  the  truth  are  pointed  out;  the  need  of  teachers  who  dare 


ADVANCED  CIVICS  IN  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS       73 

to  teach  the  truth  is  explained  and  investigated.    Many  of  the  topics 
in  Course  A  are  here  considered  more  broadly. 

In  all  of  this  work  an  attempt  is  made  to  have  the  student  acquire 
a  working  acquaintance  with  the  great  organs  of  public  opinion. 
Assigned  readings,  special  reports  and  original  investigations  are  given. 
Government  reports  and  bulletins  are  used  constantly,  and  at  every 
opportunity  participation  in  local  civic  activities  is  encouraged. 

COURSES  IN  HISTORY  METHODS  FOR  PRIMARY  AND  GRAMMAR  GRADE 
TEACHERS  (9  weeks  each) 

In  both  of  these  courses,  in  connection  with  outlining  and  criti- 
cising courses  of  history  for  the  grades  and  studying  special  methods 
of  presentation,  courses  in  civics  for  all  of  the  grades  are  presented 
and  the  method  of  teaching  is  explained. 

The  head  of  the  department  of  history  and  civics  is  at  present  con- 
ducting a  nine  weeks'  demonstration  course  in  seventh  and  eighth 
grade  civics  in  the  model  school  for  the  purpose  of  indicating  to  stu- 
dent teachers  the  method  and  possibilities  of  the  "newer  civics." 

STATEMENT  OF  METHODS,  AIDS  AND  MATERIALS  IN  ALL  COURSES 

OFFERED 

(1)  In  all  courses  opportunities  are  sought  to  bring  the  student 
into  actual  working  acquaintance  with  community  work.     For  ex- 
ample: 

(a)  The  advice  and  assistance  of  officials  from  neighborhood  to 
nation  on  various  questions  have  been  sought  by  students  and  ob- 
tained.   In  this  way  students  have  come  to  know  how  the  teacher 
citizen  can  secure  helpful  assistance  for  her  own  classes  and  com- 
munity. 

(b)  Unsightly,  unhealthful  conditions  in  the  immediate  vicinity 
have  been  reported  to  proper  authorities. 

(c)  Local  officials  have  addressed  the  class  upon  the  work  they  are 
doing. 

(d)  A  list  of  safety  first  suggestions  in  case  of  fire  has  been  pre- 
pared for  the  normal  school  students. 

(e)  A  waste  paper  receptacle  has  been  constructed  and  provided 
by  civics  students  as  a  part  of  a  "clean  campus"  campaign. 

(2)  Materials  mentioned  below  are  available  to  all  students  of 
civics,  economics  and  sociology  in  a  "laboratory  "  or  study  room  es- 
pecially equipped  with  display  racks,  tables  and  shelves  for  this  kind 


74  THE  TEACHING  OF  GOVERNMENT 

of  work.    In  this  connection  a  real  beginning  has  been  made  at  super- 
vised study. 

(3)  In  all  courses  the  point  of  view  is  that  of  the  person  preparing 
to  present  this  gospel  and  material  to  others. 

(4)  Classes  in  civics  are  deformalized  as  much  as  free,  sensible, 
truth-seeking  investigation  and  discussion  require. 

(5)  Text-books,  bulletins  and  other  illustrative  material  have  been 
used,  not  as  the  core  of  instruction,  but  rather  as  helpful  sources  of 
information  to  which  one  may  go  to  find  out  how  to  get  help  in  satis- 
fying common  needs. 

(6)  Through   student   committees   new,    up-to-date,    descriptive 
charts,  bulletins,  reports  and  much  descriptive  material  have  been 
obtained  from  various  civic  organizations  and  departments  of  govern- 
ment work. 

(7)  It  is  felt  that  no  greater  mistake  could  be  made  than  to  make 
these  courses  "text-book  courses."     A  mass  of  material  lies  right  at 
hand,  much  of  it  closely  touching  the  daily  lives  of  students.    Work- 
ing this  material  up  for  use  is  not  the  easiest  way,  but  it  has  paid — 
e.  g.,  in  the  study  of  rural  roads  and  road  problems  in  Course  i  A 
special  reports  were  prepared  upon  particular  roads  in  our  communi- 
ties; photographs  showing  differences  between  faulty  and  careful, 
scientific  construction  and  bulletins  and  pictures  issued  by  various 
commissions  and  associations  have  been  carefully  studied.1 

Normal  training  schools  such  as  the  School  of  Pedagogy, 
Philadelphia,  give  specialized  courses  in  government  equiv- 
alent to  those  offered  in  other  colleges  and  universities  with 
special  attention  to  problems  and  the  methods  of  teaching  the 
subject.  A  great  advance  would  be  made  if  more  schools  could 
establish  departments  in  the  allied  subjects  of  government, 
economics  and  sociology  and  the  instruction  in  normal  schools 
could  be  raised  to  the  standard  attained  in  a  few  notable  in- 
stances. 

B.  Colleges. 

The  increase  of  courses  in  colleges  and  universities  along  the 
lines  of  political  science,  economics  and  sociology  has  resulted 

1  Furnished  by  the  Wisconsin  state  committee. 


ADVANCED  CIVICS  IN  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS       75 

in  the  preparation  of  a  type  of  teacher  very  well  equipped  to  do 
effective  teaching  in  the  high  school.  In  most  of  the  cases 
where  courses  in  civics  are  offered  along  the  lines  of  the  new 
civics  it  is  stated  that  work  was  taken  in  college  in  one  if  not  all 
of  the  above  subjects  and  frequently  the  major  subject  is  hi  this 
field.  Perhaps  more  than  any  other  course  the  college  instruc- 
tion in  American  Government,  which  has  improved  markedly 
in  the  last  decade,  has  tended  toward  the  improvement  of  civic 
instruction  in  the  public  schools.  Courses  in  comparative  gov- 
ernment and  state  government  too  have  been  useful.  A  report, 
of  courses  now  given  in  colleges  along  with  some  suggestions  for 
improvement  is  included  in  a  subsequent  portion  of  this  report, 
and  it  is  unnecessary  to  deal  further  with  the  matter  here. 
Suffice  it  to  say  that  many  of  the  courses  given  in  departments 
of  political  science  are  too  specialized  and  technical  to  meet  the 
needs  of  prospective  teachers,  and  special  efforts  to  make  pro- 
vision in  this  regard  are  surprisingly  meagre. 

With  the  exception  of  some  incidental  attention  given  in 
courses  for  training  history  teachers,  civic  instruction  in  the 
public  schools  has  received  exceedingly  little  consideration  by 
departments  of  political  science.  A  few  exceptions  will  serve 
to  indicate  an  awakening  realization  of  responsibility  along  this 
line.  In  the  college  of  education  of  the  university  of  Minnesota 
provision  is  made  for  a  teacher's  certificate  in  government  com- 
prising nine  credits  in  political  science  and  eighteen  credits  in 
history  (total  required  for  B.  A.  degree,  120  credits).  Lectures 
on  teaching  government  in  the  secondary  schools  are  given  in 
cooperation  with  the  department  of  history.  The  university  of 
Wisconsin  offers  a  teacher's  course  devoted  to  methods  of  teach- 
ing government  in  secondary  schools  for  two  hours  throughout 
one-half  year.  In  the  summer  sessions  of  some  universities 
courses  are  offered  for  the  training  of  history  teachers  and  part 
of  the  time  is  devoted  to  methods  of  instruction  in  governmental 
affairs  and  a  few  schools  give  separate  courses  for  teachers  of 


76  THE  TEACHING  OF  GOVERNMENT 

government  in  secondary  schools.  This  matter  appears  to  the 
committee  of  such  significance  that  at  an  early  day  a  special 
committee  should  be  appointed  by  the  Association  to  con- 
sider the  training  of  teachers  of  government  in  the  public 
schools. 


PART  III 
COURSES  OF  STUDY 

SUGGESTIONS    AS    TO    COURSES    OF    STUDY    AND    METHODS    OF 
APPROACH    TO    THE    STUDY    OF    GOVERNMENT 

The  committee  has  not  attempted  the  preparation  of  outlines 
for  standard  courses  in  government  for  the  various  grades  of 
the  public  schools.  As  instruction  in  the  subject  according  to 
modern  methods  is  quite  recent  it  is  natural  that  the  content 
of  courses  and  methods  of  instruction  is  not  as  yet  carefully 
systematized.  Moreover,  the  subject  of  government  must 
necessarily  be  modified  in  both  content  and  method  in  accord- 
ance with  the  varying  conditions  and  needs  of  different  grades 
of  schools  and  diverse  community  conditions.  This  variation 
is  so  great  and  so  all  important,  particularly  with  respect  to 
instruction  hi  state,  local  and  municipal  government,  that  it 
becomes  well-nigh  impossible  to  adopt  uniform  courses  or 
methods  and  to  teach  government  effectively  according  to  any 
standard  plan. 

Where  civics  is  effectively  taught  at  the  present  time  it  is 
frequently  the  practice  to  use  one  or  more  of  the  best  available 
guides  in  the  preparation  of  an  outline  or  syllabus  for  local 
use.  This  is  a  practice  which  ought  to  be  encouraged  in  prefer- 
ence to  the  somewhat  slavish  habit  of  adopting  indiscriminately 
so-called  standard  courses.  Every  possible  aid  and  assistance 
should  of  course  be  available  to  instructors,  principals  and  super- 
intendents in  the  preparation  of  such  outlines.  It  was  with  the 
idea  in  mind  that  aid  and  encouragement  are  desired  toward 
the  preparation  of  such  outlines  that  the  committee  has  under- 
taken to  offer  some  suggestions  as  to  courses  of  study  and  meth- 

77 


78  THE  TEACHING  OF  GOVERNMENT 

ods.  of  approach.    It  is  understood  that  these  suggestions  are 
merely  tentative  and  experimental. 

A  list  of  titles  on  the  teaching  of  civics  and  some  works  which 
will  be  useful  in  a  teacher's  library  and  for  supplementary  read- 
ings are  also  offered  herewith.  Select  bibliographies  with  criti- 
cal suggestions  and  notes  for  the  various  grades  and  for  the  use 
of  teachers  remain  to  be  prepared.  A  committee  l  is  at  work 
on  the  preparation  of  such  bibliographies,  but  owing  to  the  fact 
that  considerable  time  will  be  required  to  complete  this  work 
it  seemed  advisable  to  present  some  preliminary  lists. 

i.  Suggestions  for  Civic  Topics  in  the  Elementary  Grades. 
A.  GRADES  I-III 

It  should  be  the  purpose  of  the  work  in  the  first  grades  to  lay 
a  foundation  of  good  citizenship  by  developing  in  the  child 
some  of  the  fundamental  civic  virtues.  Obedience,  cleanliness, 
orderliness,  courtesy,  helpfulness,  punctuality,  truthfulness, 
thoroughness,  honesty,  courage,  perseverance,  self-control, — all 
these,  and  others  that  might  be  named,  may  be  taken  up  with 
the  class,  and  somewhat  in  the  order  named.  Both  a  knowledge 
of  the  right,  and  a  desire  to  act  rightly,  may  be  developed  in  the 
pupils  through  stories,  poems,  memory  gems,  games,  dramati- 
zation, and  other  class  exercises.  And  these  should  be  accom- 
panied by  constant  care  on  the  part  of  the  teacher  that  the  chil- 
dren shall  be  exemplifying  these  virtues  in  their  daily  conduct. 
Thus,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  civics  work  of  these  early  grades 
can  be  little  less  than  a  continuous  lesson  in  good  morals  and 
good  manners. 

The  object  throughout  is  to  impress  on  the  children  that  they 
too  can  take  part  in  the  better  citizenship  movement  by  co- 
operating with  the  group  in  the  schoolroom,  on  the  playground 

Professors  Edgar  Dawson,  New  York,  W.  F.  Dodd,  Chicago,  E.  M. 
Borchard,  Washington,  D.  C. 


SUGGESTIONS  AS  TO  COURSES  OF  STUDY,  ETC.     79 

or  in  the  home.  The  smallest  boy  or  girl  in  the  first  primary 
grade  can  learn  to  refrain  from  doing  those  things  which  go 
against  the  welfare  of  the  group,  and — quite  as  important — to 
do  those  things  which  will  help  promote  community  welfare. 


B.  GRADES  IV-VI 

The  course  in  civics  here  suggested  for  the  first  three  grades 
has  aimed  simply  to  lay  the  foundation  for  good  citizenship  by 
developing  in  the  mind  and  in  the  motor  activities  of  the  child 
some  of  the  fundamental  civic  virtues,  especially  with  reference 
to  school  and  home  life.  But  with  the  coming  of  the  fourth 
year — if  not  earlier — the  civic  experience  of  the  child  should  be 
widened  and  made  more  diversified.  He  should  now  begin  to 
think  more  clearly  of  the  community  life  round  about  him  and  of 
how  dependent  he  and  his  family  are  on  the  daily  services  that 
the  community  is  rendering. 

Probably  the  simplest  form  of  community  service,  and  the 
most  easily  understood  by  the  child,  is  that  rendered  by  those 
who  supply  his  family  with  the  necessities  of  life:  food,  water, 
clothing,  shelter,  fuel,  medical  aid.  The  interest  of  the  com- 
munity in  the  furnishing  of  these  necessities  can  be  shown  and 
also  at  times  the  control  by  the  community  of  those  who  render 
the  services. 

The  study  of  the  family,  home,  school  and  neighborhood  can  be 
broadened  to  include  the  study  of  civic  life  from  personal  con- 
duct with  people  and  life  around  them.  Children  should  be  led 
to  observe  their  duties,  rights,  and  privileges  as  they  exist  in 
the  family,  home,  school  and  neighborhood.  They  should  be 
trained  to  understand  that  every  right  and  privilege  has  a  cor- 
responding duty  and  obligation;  that  they  owe  love,  gratitude, 
respect,  and  obedience  to  the  parents  for  then:  love,  protection 
and  support;  that  rules  and  laws  are  necessary  in  the  family, 
home,  school,  and  neighborhood  for  the  comfort,  protection  and 


8o  THE  TEACHING  OF  GOVERNMENT 

general  welfare  of  all;  that  they  should  be  honest,  industrious 
and  kind.1 

In  the  selection  of  these  topics,  and  in  the  method  of  develop- 
ing them  with  the  class,  the  teacher  should  begin  with  the  live 
interests  of  the  pupils  and  should  deal  so  far  as  possible  only  with 
actual  situations.  Both  the  services  rendered  by  the  community 
and  the  reciprocal  duties  he  owes  to  it  in  return  can  be  discussed 
by  the  class,  with  the  aid  of  the  teacher.  And  the  work  of  all 
these  grades  will  have  partially  failed  of  its  purpose  if  the  chil- 
dren have  not  acquired  a  genuine  respect  for  all  occupations 
based  on  an  appreciation  of  the  service  rendered  by  each. 

With  the  above  considerations  in  mind,  and  with  the  same 
aims  in  view,  it  will  be  an  easy  matter  to  widen  the  pupil's 
knowledge  of  community  service  by  extending  the  work  so  as 
to  cover  corporate  services  rendered  by  it.  However,  in  these 
grades  the  "biographical"  or  personal  method  should  be  used 
exclusively. 

The  children  are  still  pre-adolescent — still  in  the  individual- 
izing, hero-worshipping  stage  where  Mr.  Policeman  or  Mr. 
Fireman  may  be  or  become  an  object  of  great  interest,  while 
the  police  department  or  the  fire  department  are  mere  abstrac- 
tions. 

The  policeman,  the  fireman,  the  street-sweeper,  the  garbage 
collector,  the  postman;  water,  gas,  electricity,  the  telephone, 
the  trolley  car, — all  these  and  more,  if  the  school  is  located  in  a 
town  of  even  moderate  size,  are  familiar  objects  to  the  child  and 
lend  themselves  readily  to  class  discussion  and  reports.  A  visit 
to  a  police  or  fire  station  is  easily  arranged  for,  and  the  class  will 
derive  keen  enjoyment  from  such  a  trip  when  it  is  to  result 
later  in  an  intelligent  discussion  of  the  community  service 
rendered  by  the  agency  visited.  Another  series  of  class  talks — 
based  on  visits,  wherever  possible,  by  one  or  more  of  the  class — 
will  include  some  of  the  educational  agencies,  such  as  libraries 
Course  of  Study  and  Syllabus  in  Civics,  City  of  New  York,  p.  8. 


SUGGESTIONS  AS  TO  COURSES  OF  STUDY,  ETC.    Si 

and  museums.  And  during  the  spring  term  what  more  natural 
than  trips  to  nearby  parks  or  other  pleasure  resorts,  where  the 
children  may  learn  what  it  means  to  care  for  trees  and  flowers 
and  shrubbery! 

In  grades  five  and  six  the  problems  of  city  and  country  life 
may  be  introduced.  The  difficulties  of  securing  pure  food,  good 
and  wholesome  water  and  the  advantages  of  well  lighted,  clean 
and  well  ventilated  houses,  good  roads  and  streets,  as  well  as 
the  communication  of  disease  and  quarantine,  parks  and  play- 
grounds in  their  effect  upon  the  community,  and  similar 
matters  of  community  welfare  may  be  made  the  basis  of  class 
discussions. 

Finally,  time  should  be  saved  for  at  least  some  considera- 
tion of  the  important  industries  of  the  town  or  country;  or,  at 
least,  of  some  of  those  occupations  that  enter  vitally  into  the 
lives  of  the  children.  To  neglect  this,  especially  in  an  industrial 
community  where  a  large  proportion  of  the  children  leave  school 
all  too  early,  is  to  fail  in  an  important  particular. 

To  sum  up — civics  teaching  in  the  elementary  school  divides 
itself  naturally  into  three  periods — that  of  the  first  three  or 
four  grades  in  which  emphasis  is  given  to  some  of  the  funda- 
mental civic  virtues  as  applied  to  the  home,  to  the  school  and 
to  the  neighborhood;  second — that  of  grades  four  to  six  in  which 
more  specific  instruction  may  be  undertaken  as  to  local  affairs, 
with  emphasis  upon  some  of  the  functions  which  government 
performs  and  which  citizens  enjoy  as  members  of  a  community; 
third — that  of  grades  seven,  eight,  and  nine — junior  high  school. 
In  these  grades  instruction  may  be  made  more  definite.  A  text- 
book may  be  used  to  advantage,  and  while  the  emphasis  is  still 
upon  functions  some  attention  should  be  given  to  the  machin- 
ery of  government — local,  state,  and  national. 

The  presentation  of  civic  topics  in  the  elementary  grades  is 
still  in  the  experimental  stage.  No  well  defined  plan  or  uniform 
method  has  been  developed.  It  is  customary  to  combine  this 


82  THE  TEACHING  OF  GOVERNMENT 

instruction  with  ethics,  history  or  geography.  Such  outlines 
as  are  now  in  use  in  Berkeley,  California,  Indianapolis,  Indiana, 
Marshalltown,  Iowa,  New  York  City,  Philadelphia,  Two  Rivers 
and  Superior,  Wisconsin,  point  the  way  to  a  type  of  civic  lessons 
which  is  gradually  being  systematized  into  a  fairly  well  defined 
plan  and  method  of  approach.  Those  who  are  charged  with 
the  preparation  of  outlines  and  schedules  for  the  elementary 
grades  should  be  sure  to  consult  all  of  the  above  outlines  as  well 
as  others  now  in  preparation.1  In  order  to  be  effective,  civic 
training  must  be  as  continuous  and  as  cumulative  in  character 
and  method  as  that  of  the  study  of  our  mother  tongue.  And 
our  public  schools,  supported  as  they  are  by  public  taxation, 
should  particularly  be  made  to  function  as  nurseries  of  good 
citizenship. 

2.  Community  Civics  for  Junior  High  School. 

For  the  junior  high  school  course  some  good  texts  and  well 
prepared  outlines  are  available.  The  most  definite  and  satis- 
factory plan  has  been  formulated  by  a  special  committee  of  the 
Commission  on  the  Reorganization  of  Secondary  Education  for 
the  National  Education  Association,  consisting  of  J.  Lynn 
Barnard,  Chairman,  F.  W.  Carrier,  Principal,  Wilmington 
(Mass.)  High  School,  Arthur  W.  Dunn,  Specialist  in  Civic 
Education  for  the  Bureau  of  Education  and  Clarence  D.  Kings- 
ley,  High  School  Inspector,  Massachusetts.  Through  Bulletin 
No.  23,  1915,  of  the  Bureau  of  Education  the  outline  prepared 
by  this  committee  is  rendered  easily  accessible  to  all  who  are 
interested.  In  order  to  present  suggestions  for  a  unified  course 
throughout  all  the  grades  of  the  public  school  the  chairman  of 
this  special  committee  has  prepared  a  condensed  statement 

1  Teachers  who  do  not  have  the  definite  guidance  of  such  an  outline  will 
find  "A  Course  in  Citizenship  "  by  Cabot,  Andrews,  Hill,  and  McSkimmon 
(Houghton)  very  well  adapted  for  the  beginning  grades  and  may  secure 
assistance  and  guidance  from  the  monograph  on  "The  Teaching  of  Civics  " 
by  Mabel  Hill  (Houghton). 


SUGGESTIONS  AS  TO  COURSES  OF  STUDY,  ETC.  83 

based  upon  the  Bureau  of  Education  Bulletin,  with  a  few  re- 
visions and  additions.  Those  who  desire  a  more  complete  dis- 
cussion of  methods  and  a  more  extensive  outline  of  topics  with 
some  suggestive  lessons  are  referred  to  this  Bulletin. 

A.  GENERAL  INTRODUCTION 

I.  What  is  Community  Civics? 

The  social  study  to  which  the  name  "  community  civics  " 
has  been  applied  is  well  defined  or  described  in  Civic  Education 
Circular  No.  i,  issued  by  the  United  States  Bureau  of  Education: 

"The  aim  of  community  civics  is  to  help  the  child  to  know  his  com- 
munity— not  merely  a  lot  of  facts  about  it,  but  the  meaning  of  his 
community  life,  what  it  does  for  him  and  how  it  does  it,  what  the 
community  has  a  right  to  expect  from  him,  and  how  he  may  fulfil 
his  obligation:  meanwhile  cultivating  in  him  the  essential  qualities 
and  habits  of  good  citizenship. 

"Community  civics  lays  emphasis  upon  the  local  community  be- 
cause (i)  it  is  the  community  with  which  every  citizen,  especially 
the  child,  comes  into  most  intimate  relations,  and  which  is  always 
in  the  foreground  of  experience;  (2)  it  is  easier  for  the  child,  as  for 
any  citizen,  to  realize  his  membership  in  the  local  community,  to  feel 
a  sense  of  personal  responsibility  for  it,  and  to  enter  into  actual  co- 
operation with  it,  than  is  the  case  with  the  national  community. 

"But  our  nation  and  our  state  are  communities,  as  well  as  our  city 
or  village,  and  a  child  is  a  citizen  of  the  larger  as  of  the  smaller  com- 
munity. The  significance  of  the  term  '  community  civics'  does  not  lie 
in  its  geographical  implications,  but  in  its  implication  of  community 
relations,  of  a  community  of  interests.  ...  It  is  a  question  of  point 
of  view;  and  community  civics  applies  this  point  of  view  to  the  study 
of  the  national  community  as  well  as  to  the  study  of  the  local  com- 
munity." 

II.  Specific  Aims  of  Community  Civics. 

To  accomplish  its  part  in  the  training  for  citizenship  com- 
munity civics  should  aim  primarily  to  lead  the  pupil: 

i.  To  see  the  importance  and  significance  of  the  elements  of 


84  THE  TEACHING  OF  GOVERNMENT 

community  welfare  in  their  relation  to  himself,  and  to  the  com- 
munities of  which  he  is  a  member; 

2.  To  know  the  social  agencies,  governmental  and  voluntary, 
that  exist  to  secure  these  elements  of  community  welfare; 

3.  To  recognize  his  civic  obligations,  present  and  future,  and 
to  respond  to  them  by  appropriate  action. 

III.  Elements  of  Welfare  Suggested  as  Topics. 

For  this  course  in  community  civics,  it  is  suggested  that  the 
following  elements  of  welfare  be  studied  as  topics: 

Health;  Protection  of  Life  and  Property;  Recreation;  Educa- 
tion; Civic  Beauty;  Communication;  Transportation;  Migra- 
tion; Wealth;  Charities;  Correction. 

As  each  community  function  is  taken  up,  the  governmental 
agency  or  mechanism  which  performs  this  service  should  be 
carefully  noted  as  well  as  any  private  organization  that  may  be 
cooperating  with  that  agency.  Later  in  the  course,  a  review  of 
these  various  departments,  bureaus,  commissions  or  associations 
— both  as  to  how  they  are  organized  and  as  to  how  they  are 
financed — should  be  conducted;  and  in  such  a  way  as  to  show 
clearly  the  structure  of  our  government,  local,  state  and  na- 
tional. And,  finally,  care  must  be  taken  to  give  some  considera- 
tion to  such  important  topics  as  the  nomination  of  candidates, 
party  campaigns,  and  the  simpler  sort  of  court  proceedings. 

The  attempt  has  been  made  to  arrange  these  elements  of 
welfare  in  an  order  that  seems  suitable  for  teaching,  but  each 
teacher  will  be  obliged  to  exercise  judgment  in  adapting  the  order 
to  the  needs  and  current  interests  of  the  class. 

IV.  Social  Facts  upon  which  the  Method  should  be  Based. 

The  pupil  is  a  young  citizen  with  real  present  interests  at 
stake.  He  is  dependent  upon  the  community  for  his  education, 
for  recreation,  for  the  protection  of  health,  life  and  property, 
for  the  beauty  of  his  surroundings,  for  the  ease  with  which  he 


SUGGESTIONS  AS  TO  COURSES  OF  STUDY,  ETC.    85 

may  communicate  with  his  friends.  Moreover,  his  cooperation 
in  many  phases  of  community  life  is  quite  as  important  as  that 
of  the  adult,  especially  in  the  form  of  public  opinion.  Hence  it 
is  the  task  of  the  teacher  not  to  attempt  to  create  an  artificial 
interest  for  future  use,  but  to  develop  existing  interests  and 
present  citizenship. 

The  amount  of  civic  information  possessed  collectively  by 
an  ordinary  class  of  wide-awake  young  citizens  twelve  to  fifteen 
years  of  age  is  surprisingly  large.  But  it  is  fragmentary,  and 
usually  unorganized.  It  is,  therefore,  important  to  teach  the 
pupils  how  to  test  and  organize  this  knowledge,  always  re- 
membering that  they  will  be  most  ready  to  act  on  those  convic- 
tions which  they  have  helped  to  form  for  themselves. 

It  should  be  remembered,  finally,  that  the  class  has  the  es- 
sential characteristics  of  a  community,  and  that,  therefore,  the 
methods  by  which  the  class  exercises  are  conducted  are  of  the 
utmost  importance  in  the  cultivation  of  civic  qualities  and  hab- 
its. Cooperation  in  contributing  information;  the  give-and-take 
of  class  discussion;  regard  for  the  contributions  and  opinions 
of  others;  personal  responsibility  for  the  class  welfare;  the  at- 
titude of  the  teacher  as  a  fellow-citizen  with  the  pupils,  and  a 
learner  along  with  them: — all  of  these  help  to  cultivate  interest, 
judgment,  initiative,  cooperation,  power  to  organize  knowledge, 
and  other  qualities  of  good  citizenship.  In  short,  the  class 
should  exemplify  the  right  community  spirit. 

V.  Method  of  Teaching  Community  Civics. 

The  study  of  each  topic  of  this  kind  should  consist  of  the 
following  steps: 

i.  Approach  to  the  Topic. 

In  beginning  the  study  of  an  element  of  welfare,  the  teacher 
should  lead  the  pupils  to  realize  its  importance  to  themselves, 
to  their  neighbors,  and  to  the  community,  and  to  see  the  de- 
pendence of  the  individual  upon  social  agencies. 


86  THE  TEACHING  OF  GOVERNMENT 

Much  depends  upon  the  method  of  approach.  The  planning 
of  an  approach  appropriate  to  a  given  topic  and  applicable  to 
a  given  class  calls  for  ingenuity  and  resourcefulness.  It  is  es- 
pecially important  to  draw  upon  the  experience  and  observa- 
tion of  the  class — to  have  the  class  consciously  pool  their  ex- 
perience. 

2.  Investigation  of  Agencies. 

The  knowledge  of  the  class  should  now  be  extended  by  a 
concrete  and  more  or  less  detailed  investigation  of  the  agencies 
through  which  society  aims  to  secure  this  particular  element  of 
welfare.  These  investigations  should  consist  largely  of  first- 
hand observation  and  study  of  local  conditions. 

It  is  advised  that  the  first  subject  considered  in  the  course  be 
investigated  by  the  entire  class  under  the  direction  of  the  teacher, 
so  as  to  get  a  method  of  work.  After  that,  agencies  may  be 
studied  sometimes  by  the  class  as  a  whole  and  sometimes  by 
groups  of  pupils,  the  choice  of  procedure  depending  on  the  diffi- 
culty of  the  agency,  its  importance,  and  the  degree  to  which  the 
class  has  secured  a  social  point  of  view. 

The  subjects  which  are  comprehended  under  each  topic  are 
so  many  that  no  attempt  should  be  made  to  have  the  class  as  a 
whole  study  them  all  intensively.  Such  an  attempt  would 
result  in  superficiality,  kill  interest,  and  defeat  the  purpose  of 
the  course.  In  general  the  more  skillful  the  teacher,  the  more  will 
he  find  which  the  class  can  do  profitably  under  any  agency.  It 
will  often  be  found  advisable  to  study  in  detail  one  or  more 
agencies  under  a  given  topic,  and  then  to  make  a  rapid  survey 
of  others. 

In  selecting  the  agencies  for  intensive  study  it  will  be  prefer- 
able, especially  at  the  start,  to  select  those  which  are  either: 

(a)  of  current  interest  to  the  community, — such  as  a  proposed 
state  road,  new  health  regulations  in  view  of  a  recent  epidemic, 
or  a  new  system  of  fire  protection; 


SUGGESTIONS  AS  TO  COURSES  OF  STUDY,  ETC.     87 

(b)  of  immediate  interest  to  the  class, — such  as  an  athletic 
field,  a  new  school  building,  moving  picture  shows,   school 
lunches,  rules  of  athletic  associations,  boy  scouts;  or 

(c)  of  special  interest  to  the  teacher, — where  the  teacher  is 
so  familiar  with  all  the  agencies  that  he  can  deal  with  them  effect- 
ively, thus  making  the  study  more  profitable  to  the  pupils. 

3.  Recognition  of  Responsibility. 

A  lesson  in  community  civics  is  not  complete  unless  it  leaves 
with  the  pupil  a  sense  of  his  personal  responsibility  and  results 
in  right  action.  To  attain  these  ends  is  perhaps  the  most  diffi- 
cult and  delicate  task  of  the  teacher.  A  proper  sense  of  respon- 
sibility can  only  grow  out  of  a  correct  perception  of  a  social 
situation,  and  a  desire  to  act,  from  a  realization  of  vital  interest 
in  the  situation. 

A  distinction  should  be  made  between  the  present  and  future 
civic  duties  of  junior  high  school  pupils.  They  have  some  civic 
responsibilities  now;  others  await  them  in  adult  life.  They  must 
be  prepared  for  both.  The  teacher  should  be  careful  to  cultivate 
judgment  as  to  the  kinds  of  things  for  which  the  pupils  should 
assume  responsibility  now.  For  example,  pupils  can  hardly 
have  any  large  responsibility  for  the  water  supply  of  their  com- 
munity; but  they  can  help  to  conserve  it  by  avoiding  waste 
from  water  taps,  and  they  can  help  to  prevent  the  spread  of  dis- 
ease by  using  individual  drinking  cups  and  by  cultivating  a 
sentiment  at  home  against  contaminating  the  sources  of  water 
supply,  especially  if  wells  or  springs  are  used. 

A  distinction  should  be  made  also  between  the  duties  of  the 
citizen  and  the  duties  of  the  official.  The  citizen  selects  the 
official  and  should  hold  him  to  his  task.  The  citizen  must  know 
the  purpose  to  be  achieved,  the  official  must  find  out  how  to 
achieve  it;  the  citizen  needs  a  sense  of  values,  the  official  needs 
technical  knowledge;  the  citizen  must  be  a  competent  employer, 
the  official  a  competent  executive. 


88  THE  TEACHING  OF  GOVERNMENT 

In  the  past  much  civic  instruction  has  been  ineffective  be- 
cause it  has  left  the  pupil  to  work  out  for  himself  the  applica- 
tion of  general  principles  to  conduct.  The  translation  of  prin- 
ciples into  conduct  is  more  difficult  than  the  comprehension  of 
the  principles  themselves.  It  is  largely  a  matter  of  motive, 
reinforced  by  judgment  and  initiative.  To  cultivate  these  is 
the  teacher's  greatest  task.  Accordingly,  the  natural  human 
motive  of  self-interest  should  be  recognized.  It  is  not  only 
legitimate,  but  in  every  way  desirable,  to  demonstrate  the  rela- 
tion of  civic  conduct  to  self-interest,  and  to  utilize  the  latter  as 
a  channel  through  which  to  develop  a  broad  spirit  of  service. 
Thus  the  pupil  may  come  to  perceive  that  his  interest  is  a  part 
of  the  common  interest,  and  so  arrive  at  an  ideal  altruism  that 
shall  lead  to  the  placing  of  the  interest  of  others — of  the  com- 
munity— above  the  interest  of  self. 

B.  THE  COURSE  OF  STUDY 

General  Outline 

The  main  topics  have  already  been  given  under  the  title, 
"Elements  of  Welfare";  and  mention  was  there  made  of  the 
need  and  use  of  various  social  agencies  to  secure  these  "ele- 
ments." It  will  now  be  in  order  to  present  some  important 
topics  and  then  to  illustrate  the  method  by  which  these  may  be 
developed  with  a  class.  For  suggestions  as  to  additional  agen- 
cies under  each  of  these  headings  teachers  are  referred  to  the 
Bulletin  on  the  Teaching  of  Community  Civics. 

Topic  I.  Health 

The  number  of  agencies  in  the  following  list  to  be  investigated 
in  detail  will  depend  upon  the  time  available  and  the  relative 
importance  of  this  topic,  health,  in  the  community  and  for  the 
class.  Community  methods  and  agencies: 


SUGGESTIONS  AS  TO  COURSES  OF  STUDY,  ETC.       89 

To  secure  Pure  Air,  Pure  Water,  Pure  Food. 

For  Exercise,  for  Cleanliness. 

To  avoid  Contagion,  to  restrict  the  use  of  Drugs. 

Topic  II.  Protection  of  Life  and  Property 
Agencies  for  the  protection  of  life  and  property  such  as 

Police,  Courts  (civil  and  criminal),  Legal  Aid  Societies. 

Militia,  State  Constabulary. 

Army,  Navy. 

Patents  and  Copyrights. 

Topic  III.  Recreation 

Recreation  agencies  and  the  community  control  of  them  such 
as  the  following  may  be  discussed: 

Playgrounds,  athletic  fields  and  gymnasiums;  Public  baths,  recrea- 
tion piers  and  dance  halls;  Concerts,  theatres  and  moving  pictures; 
Botanical  and  zoological  gardens,  libraries,  museums  and  art  galler- 
ies; Fish  and  game  protection  and  national  parks. 

Topic  IV.  Education 

In  the  same  spirit  and  by  similar  methods  such  educational 
agencies  and  community  functions  as  the  following  may  be 
taken  up  for  discussion  so  far  as  time  and  circumstances  warrant: 

1.  Kindergartens,  elementary  schools  (day,  evening,  summer,  special), 

high  schools  (day,  evening,  summer,  special),  private  and  co- 
operative schools;  Higher  institutions  (different  kinds  and  pur- 
poses of  each) ;  Correspondence  schools  (use  and  limitations) ;  Sum- 
mer Chautauquas;  Winter  reading  circles;  Schools  for  defectives 
(blind,  deaf,  etc.) 

2.  Educational  agencies  such  as 

Public  education  associations;  Home  and  School  associations; 
The  Foundations  (Sage,  General,  Education  Board,  Carnegie 
Foundation  for  the  advancement  of  Teaching);  U.  S.  Bureau  of 
Education. 


go  THE  TEACHING  OF  GOVERNMENT 

Topic  V.  Civic  Beauty 

The  following  is  a  list  of  topics  rather  than  of  agencies;  but 
their  study,  of  course,  involves  a  consideration  of  corresponding 
agencies: 

Beauty  in  the  home  and  the  school  as  evidenced  in  the  care  of  lawns, 

gardens,  trees. 
School  architecture,  improvement  of  grounds,  school  gardening. 

Beauty  in  the  street: 

The  street  plan;  Construction  and  repair;  Cleanliness;  Provision  for 
rubbish;  Unsightly  objects — Telephone  and  electric  light 
poles,  bill-boards;  Care  and  preservation  of  trees;  Noise; 
Lighting  at  night. 

City — or  town — planning: 

Street  plan;  Grouping  of  public  buildings;  Industrial  and  residen- 
tial sections;  Regulation  of  height  of  buildings;  Preservation  of 
natural  beauty. 

Topic  VI.  Communication 
Agencies  such  as: 
Postal  service;  Telegraph;  Ocean  cables;  Wireless;  Telephone. 

Topic  VII.  Transportation 
Agencies  and  the  community  service  rendered  by  each: 

Roads,  Bridges  and  Streets: 

Government  control — county,  state  and  nation. 
Highway  Commissions. 

Department  of  Agriculture  (Office  of  Public  Roads). 
Post  Office  Department  (Rural  Delivery). 

Natural  waterways;  rivers,  lakes,  ocean. 
State  bureaus  and  commissions. 
National 

Department    of    Commerce    (Coast    Survey,  Bureau 

of  Navigation,  Bureau  of  Lighthouses). 
Department  of  the  Treasury  (Life-saving  stations). 


SUGGESTIONS  AS  TO  COURSES  OF  STUDY,  ETC.      91 

Department  of  War  (River  and  Harbor  Improvement). 
Department  of  Agriculture  (Weather  Bureau). 
International  Waterways  Commission. 
Interstate  Commerce  Commission. 

Railroads. 

Private  corporations;  State  (railway  or  public  service  com- 
mission); National  (Interstate  Commerce  Commission). 

Electric  railways. 

Urban;  surface,  elevated,  subway. 

Interurban:  Private  corporations;  City  governments  (fran- 
chises, commissions);  State  governments  (public  service 
commissions);  National  (Interstate  Commerce  Commis- 
sion). 

Steamship  and  other  navigation  lines. 

Topic  VIII.  Migration 

The  following  are  some  of  the  agencies  that  have  more  or  less 
influence  on  migration: 

Federal  Bureau  of  Immigration  and  Inspection  Service. 

Federal  Bureau  of  Naturalization. 

State  departments  of  labor  and  employment  bureaus. 

Steamship  companies;  Railroad  companies;  Corporation  labor 
agents. 

Colonization  societies;  Immigration  societies  and  other  volun- 
tary organizations  in  the  interest  of  immigrants;  Chambers  of  Com- 
merce and  similar  organizations  that  seek  to  induce  industries  to 
establish  themselves  in  cities;  Wheat  growers'  associations,  agricul- 
tural exhibits,  county  and  state  fairs,  etc. 

Topic  IX.  Wealth 

The  following  are  some  of  the  agencies  that  might  be  con- 
sidered: 

1.  Use  and  control  of  wealth  in  the  community. 

2.  Government  control  of  property  and  wealth. 

State  bureaus  and  commissions. 
Agriculture,  labor,  highways,  etc.;  Employment  Bureaus. 


92  THE  TEACHING  OF  GOVERNMENT 

State  universities,  agricultural  and  technical  schools. 
State  legislation. 

Wage  laws,  accident  liability,  labor  of  women  and  children, 
working  conditions. 

Federal  departments,  bureaus,  commissions,  etc. 

Treasury,  Agriculture,  Commerce,  Labor,  Interior,  Interstate 
Commerce  Commission,  etc.;  Consular  system;  Federal  Em- 
ployment Bureaus;  Federal  Reserve  Board. 

Federal  legislation  (consider  the  legislation  of  the  present  or  last 
session  of  Congress). 

Topic  X.  Charities 

Some  of  the  important  agencies  under  this  topic  are  the  fol- 
lowing: 

Local  and  state  institutions  for  dependents  and  defectives;  City 
and  state  departments  of  charities;  Charity  organization  societies; 
Voluntary  charitable  organizations;  Churches;  Fraternal  organ- 
izations; Settlements;  Relief  and  social  service  departments  of 
business  corporations;  Schools  of  philanthropy;  Philanthropic 
foundations;  Labor  unions;  Employment  bureaus. 

Topic  XI.  Correction 

Agencies  mainly  instrumental  in  dealing  with  delinquents 
are: 

Rules  and  laws: 

School  regulations;  Local  ordinances;  State  laws;  National  laws. 

For  law  enforcement: 

Machinery  of  school  administration  and  discipline;  Parental, 
truant  and  special  schools;  Reform  schools  and  reformatories; 
Jails  and  prisons;  Labor  colonies;  Juvenile  courts;  Courts  for 
adults;  Probation  and  parole;  Prison  reform  associations. 

Topic  XII.   How  Governmental  Agencies  are  Conducted, 
Note  the  following,  among  others: 

Direct  self-government: 

The  town  meeting;  National  and  state  Constitutions  as  repre- 


SUGGESTIONS  AS  TO  COURSES  OF  STUDY,  ETC.       93 

senting  the  direct  will  of  the  people;  Recent  development  of  the 
initiative,  referendum  and  recall. 

Representative  self-government: 

Reasons  for;  Methods  of  representation;  Proportional  represen- 
tation. 

Division  of  governing  powers: 

Local,  state,  national;  Reason  for  such  division;  Relations  be- 
tween state  and  local,  between  state  and  national. 

Separation  of  powers: 

Legislative,  executive,  judicial;  Reasons  for;  Degrees  of  separa- 
tion in  national,  state,  county,  and  city  governments;  Checks 
and  balances. 

Selection  of  representatives: 

The   suffrage;   Nominations;    Conventions;    Direct    primaries; 
Preferential  primaries;  Elections;  Party  systems;  Short  ballot. 
The  civil  service,  civil  service  reform. 
Machine  politics. 

Topic  XIII.    General  Organization  of  Government l 

At  this  point  specific  attention  may  well  be  given  to  the  ma- 
chinery of  government.  While  incidental  instruction  as  to 
governmental  agencies  has  necessarily  been  imparted  through- 
out the  previous  functional  study,  the  course  will  fail  in  one  of  its 
chief  purposes  if  the  various  units  of  government  are  not  now 
considered  as  a  whole  and  if  some  special  attention  is  not  given 
to  government  organization.  Teachers  will  of  course  exercise 
judgment  as  to  the  extent  to  which  these  topics  may  be  treated 
and  adapt  the  instruction  so  as  to  meet  the  needs  of  junior 
citizens. 

County  Government:  County  Commissioners:  Sheriff,  Attorney, 
Clerk,  Judges,  Treasurer,  Assessor,  Tax  Collector,  Surveyor, 
Superintendent  of  Schools,  Physician,  Probation  Officer,  Au- 
ditor. 

i  In  the  preparation  of  Topic  XIII,  aid  was  received  from  the  New  York 
Course  of  Study  for  Elementary  Schools. 


94  THE  TEACHING  OF  GOVERNMENT 

City  Government:    Charter;  Executive — Mayor;  Legislative — Board 
of  Aldermen,  City  Council  or  Commissioners;  Judiciary — Civil, 
Criminal,  Children's  Court. 
Departments:  purpose,  organization,  cost. 

Health,  Education,  Public  Utilities,  Fire,  Police  and  Public 
Safety,  Finance,  Parks,  Playgrounds  and  Recreation  facilities, 
Civil  Service. 

State  Government:  Constitution. 

Executive — Governor. 

Legislative — House  of  Representatives,  Senate. 

Judiciary — Supreme  Courts  and  Courts  of  Appeal,  District 
Courts. 

Boards,  Commissions  and  Commissioners  such  as:  Banking,  In- 
surance, Education,  Charities  and  Correction,  Health,  Public 
Utilities,  State  Institutions,  etc. 

National  Government:  Constitution. 
Executive — President  and  Cabinet. 

Legislative — Congress:  Senate  and  House  of  Representatives. 
Judicial — Supreme    Court — Circuit    Courts    of    Appeals — Dis- 
trict Courts. 

Special  attention  may  be  given  to  the  Bureau  of  Education, 
Public  Health  Service,  Department  of  Agriculture,  etc. 

Topic  XIV.   How  Governmental  Agencies  are  Financed 
The  following  may  be  investigated: 
Sources  of  revenue. 

Methods  of  taxation. 

Budget  making;  Appropriations;  Assessment;  Equalization;  Ex- 
emptions; Imposts  and  excises. 

Methods  of  checking  expenditures. 
Reports;  Audits;  Budget  exhibits. 

Methods  of  borrowing  money. 

Topic  XV.  How  Voluntary  Agencies  are  Conducted  and  Financed 

Numerous  private  organizations — local,  state  and  national — 
that  cooperate  with  governmental  agencies  have  already  been 


SUGGESTIONS  AS  TO  COURSES  OF  STUDY,  ETC.   95 

noted  in  the  foregoing  discussion  of  the  agencies  through 
which  the  elements  of  welfare  are  served.  But  it  may  prove 
worth  while,  if  time  permits,  to  discuss  a  few  of  these  vol- 
untary agencies  in  greater  detail.  Following  is  a  partial  list: 

Private  hospital;  playground  association;  charity  organization  society; 
social  settlement;  board  of  trade  or  chamber  of  commerce;  child 
labor  organization;  humane  society;  bureau  of  municipal  re- 
search; consumers'  league;  local  newspaper. 

Method 

The  method  suggested  for  this  course  in  civics  has  already 
been  briefly  described,  with  its  three-fold  division  of  (i)  Ap- 
proach to  Topic;  (2)  Investigation  of  Agencies;  (3)  Recognition  of 
Responsibility.  This  method  is  worked  out  in  detail  for  a  few 
topics  in  the  Bulletin  on  the  Teaching  of  Community  Civics, 
to  which  the  teacher  is  referred  for  specific  suggestions.  The 
plan  for  one  of  the  topics  is  reproduced  by  way  of  illustration, 
along  with  a  model  lesson  on  Roads  specially  adapted  for  use  in 
rural  schools. 

It  must  be  remembered  that  all  the  " elements"  are  appli- 
cable alike  to  a  small  village  or  to  a  great  city,  while  the  "  agen- 
cies "  must  vary  with  time  and  place.  Only  such  agencies  as  are 
of  interest  and  importance  to  the  class  or  to  the  community  at 
large  should  be  considered  at  all.  This,  of  course,  will  call  for 
careful  selection  and  emphasis. 

Protection  of  Life  and  Property. 

Approach  to  the  Topic. 

One  way  to  approach  this  topic  is  through  a  discussion  of  some 
dramatic  accident  that  has  occurred  in  the  vicinity,  or  that  has 
gained  prominence  through  the  newspapers,  such  as  the  burning 
of  a  part  of  Salem,  Mass.,  the  shirtwaist  factory  fire  in  New 
York  City,  or  the  recent  floods  in  Ohio  and  Indiana,  and  then  to 


Q6  THE  TEACHING  OF  GOVERNMENT 

exhibit  statistics  (which  the  pupils  themselves  may  gather)  to 
show  that  accidents  less  dramatic  but  of  common  occurrence 
result,  in  the  aggregate,  in  more  terrible  loss  of  life  and  greater 
destruction  of  property.  Instances  may  be  found  in  the  annual 
loss  from  fire,  the  railroad  or  mining  accidents  of  the  past  year, 
injuries  occurring  in  the  ordinary  course  of  traffic  in  the  streets 
of  a  large  city,  or  the  loss  of  life  and  limb  on  the  Fourth  of 
July. 

Compare  the  attitude  of  different  people  toward  the  removal 
of  causes  of  accidents:  for  example,  the  attitude  of  the  Chinese 
toward  the  inundation  of  their  rivers  as  compared  with  that  of 
the  people  along  the  Mississippi.  Why  the  difference?  (Note, 
however,  the  unnecessary  loss  of  life  and  property  in  this  coun- 
try from  periodic  floods.)  Compare  the  frequency  of  railroad 
accidents  in  this  country  with  that  in  England  and  in  Germany. 

Note  the  growing  movement  in  behalf  of  protection  of  life  and 
property  in  this  country  as  illustrated  by  the  "safety  first" 
movement.  What  has  brought  about  the  changed  attitude? 
Give  illustrations  from  your  own  community. 

Investigation  of  Agencies. 

The  study  of  means  adopted  to  protect  life  and  property 
should  commence  with  conditions  that  are  very  near  to  the 
pupils.  In  case  the  investigation  starts  with  fire  prevention 
in  the  home,  information  on  such  lines  as  the  following  may  be 
sought: 

Of  what  material  is  your  house  built?  Is  there  need  for  fire-escapes 
and  are  such  provided?  Is  there  any  danger  of  fire  from  stoves  or 
furnaces  in  your  house?  Is  gasoline  or  any  other  explosive  kept  in  the 
house  and  if  so  what  care  is  taken  of  it?  Is  there  any  danger  from 
lighted  matches?  If  you  have  electricity  how  is  the  current  insulated? 
In  case  a  fire  broke  out  what  steps  would  you  take?  Where  is  the 
nearest  fire-alarm  box?  How  would  you  send  in  an  alarm?  Is  the 
water  supply  adequate  to  extinguish  a  fire?  With  reference  to  how 
many  of  these  points  are  there  laws  in  your  community? 


SUGGESTIONS  AS  TO  COURSES  OF  STUDY,  ETC.      97 

It  is  better,  however,  instead  of  asking  the  pupils  detailed, 
leading  questions  such  as  those  above,  to  seek  to  draw  them  out 
as  to  the  sources  of  danger  to  life  and  property  in  their  own 
homes.  Let  them  mention  materials  of  construction,  fire- 
escapes,  matches,  etc.  From  their  miscellaneous  list,  brought 
out  by  free  and  general  discussion,  a  corrected  and  classified 
list  may  be  compiled  and  placed  on  the  blackboard  in  good 
order  as  a  basis  for  further  discussion.  This  will  stimulate 
initiative  and  give  the  pupils  practice  in  organizing  their  own 
knowledge. 

A  similar  plan  may  be  followed  with  regard  to  the  provisions 
for  safety  in  the  school  building  and  elsewhere. 

Responsibility  of  the  Citizen. 

Even  a  cursory  analysis  of  the  causes  of  the  fires  occurring 
annually  in  a  community,  together  with  an  exhibit  of  the  cost 
to  the  community,  will  of  itself  suggest  the  heavy  responsibility 
resting  on  each  citizen  for  the  prevention  of  fire.  A  study  of 
the  causes  of  accidents  on  the  street  will  impress  the  same  idea. 

Habits  of  destruction  and  vandalism,when  they  prevail  among 
boys,  are  not  always  easy  to  overcome.  But  more  can  be  done 
to  this  end  by  a  vivid  demonstration  of  the  social  consequences 
of  such  practices  through  an  array  of  concrete  situations  which 
will  of  themselves  appeal  to  self-interest,  to  the  spirit  of  the 
"  square  deal,"  and  to  a  proud  sense  of  personal  responsibility, 
than  by  preachment. 

Pupils  should  be  taught  the  proper  use  of  safety  devices  and 
the  precautions  that  they  should  take  in  order  to  protect  both 
themselves  and  their  fellow-citizens.  In  one  school  in  a  large 
city  a  model  of  a  street  car  platform  was  placed  in  the  gymna- 
sium and  the  pupils  were  trained  to  get  off  the  car  facing  forward. 
The  importance  of  fire  drills  in  the  schools  should  be  thoroughly 
discussed,  and  these  drills  held  often  enough  to  secure  rapid  and 
orderly  emptying  of  the  building.  Similarly  the  class  should 


98  THE  TEACHING  OF  GOVERNMENT 

discuss  the  proper  procedure  in  case  of  a  fire  in  any  other  build- 
ing, such  as  a  theatre.  Probably  in  every  town  and  city  there 
are  devices,  such  as  fire-alarm  boxes,  that  the  local  authorities 
would  gladly  have  pupils  trained  to  use  correctly.  Quite  likely 
the  fire  department  would  lend  a  sample  box  to  the  school  so 
that  each  pupil  could  learn  the  proper  method  of  turning  in  an 
alarm.  The  class  may  discuss  the  steps  that  should  be  taken  by 
the  citizen  to  secure  the  installation  of  safety  devices  either  in  his 
own  dwelling  or  in  public  buildings  or  in  cars  and  factories. 

For  suggestive  outlines  as  to  the  treatment  of  Health,  Rec- 
reation, Education,  Civic  Beauty,  Communication,  Trans- 
portation, Charities  and  Correction  consult  Bulletin  on  the 
Teaching  of  Community  Civics. 

Professor  J.  F.  Smith  of  Berea  College,  submitted  to  the  Bu- 
reau of  Education  the  following  outline  on  Country  Roads  and 
it  is  here  reproduced  as  a  good  concrete  example  for  use  in  rural 
communities.  In  this  study  numerous  photographs  are  used. 
Walks  are  taken  over  good  and  bad  roads  for  first-hand  study. 
Teacher  and  pupils  actually  do  a  piece  of  road  work.  Bulletins 
regarding  road  building  are  placed  in  the  hands  of  the  pupils. 
Endeavor  is  made  to  have  a  few  yards  of  model  road  built  near 
the  school  house. 

A.  i.  Study  and  report  on  conditions  of  road  in  the  community. 
Draw  a  map  of  the  community  indicating  roads.  Which 
are  dirt  roads,  rock  roads,  other  kinds?  Which  are  well 
graded,  well  crowned?  Note  side  ditches;  are  they  ade- 
quate? Note  culverts  and  bridges.  Estimate  number  of 
miles  of  roads  in  the  community,  public  and  private. 

2.  Study  road-making  material  in  the  community.    Note  places 

where  limestone  is  found;  sandstone,  slate,  gravel.  Are 
these  materials  accessible? 

3.  Find  out  cost  of  hauling  in  the  community.    Consult  wagon- 

ers and  learn  charges  per  hundred  pounds  for  freight  and 
farm  produce.  Can  farmers  afford  to  market  produce  at 
present  cost  of  cartage?  Find  out  how  much  freight  is 
hauled  into  the  community  annually  and  compute  amount 


SUGGESTIONS  AS  TO  COURSES  OF  STUDY,  ETC.      99 

paid  for  this.  How  long  will  wagon  and  set  of  harness  last 
on  the  roads?  How  long  on  good  roads?  Difference  in 
cost  for  10  years?  How  much  could  the  people  who  buy 
supplies  afford  to  spend  on  road  upkeep  each  year  in  order 
to  cut  down  freight  rates? 

4.  Compare  cost  of  hauling  here  with  cost  in  European  countries 
where  the  best  roads  exist.  What  over-tax  do  the  people 
have  to  pay?  Note  that  this  over-tax  is  in  the  form  of 
higher  prices  for  household  necessities  and  in  smaller 
profits  for  farm  produce. 

B.  Road  building: 

Determine  kind  of  road;  the  location;  grades,  how  grades  affect 
the  haul;  the  drainage — level  and  steep  roads,  side  ditches, 
culverts,  subdrainage,  crown;  actual  construction — tools, 
funds,  means  employed. 

C.  Road  maintenance: 

Kind  of  material  to  use;  regular  attention  necessary;  the  tools; 
the  king's  split-log  drag. 

D.  What  good  roads  mean  to  a  community: 

The  economic  problem.   How  they  enhance  value  of  land. 
Means  of  communication.    Better  social  life.1 

CONCLUSION 

The  last  four  topics  given  in  the  outline — how  governmental 
agencies  are  conducted,  general  organization  of  government, 
how  governmental  agencies  are  financed,  how  voluntary  agen- 
cies are  conducted  and  financed — are  intended  to  form  the  basis 
of  a  review  of  the  organization  of  government  and  of  cooper- 
ating private  associations,  which  have  been  only  incidentally 
touched  upon  in  considering  the  various  agencies.  This  will 
place  a  skeleton  or  framework  within  the  living  structure  which 
teacher  and  pupils  have  been  erecting  during  the  year.  The 
treatment  of  each  topic  has  led  to  the  corresponding  department 
of  government  and  its  organization  for  the  special  function  per- 
formed. It  merely  remains  therefore  to  treat  the  relation  of 
1  Taken  from  Civic  Education  Series,  No.  4. 


TOO  THE  TEACHING  OF  GOVERNMENT 

departments  and  their  combination  into  the  units  of  govern- 
ment— county,  city,  state,  and  nation.  Organization  charts  and 
the  graphic  method  of  presenting  a  summary  of  the  essential 
relations  between  various  divisions  and  officers  can  be  used  to 
great  advantage.  Emphasis  may  well  be  given  here  to  the 
state  as  a  whole:  its  broad  significance,  its  all  comprehensiveness, 
its  vital  importance  to  community  life. 

City  charters  or  ordinances,  state  constitutions  or  laws,  the 
federal  Constitution  or  acts  of  Congress — all  these  should  be 
used  throughout  the  course,  along  with  departmental  reports, 
maps,  charts,  models,  samples,  etc.,  as  collateral  material.  A 
civics  laboratory  will  come  to  be  regarded  in  the  same  light  as 
those  for  physics,  chemistry,  and  biology. 

3.  Senior  High  School. 

On  account  of  the  changes  already  made  in  civic  instruction 
in  the  elementary  grades  and  in  view  of  further  modifications 
now  under  way  it  becomes  necessary  to  revise  somewhat  the 
formal  plan  of  civics  course  as  offered  in  many  secondary, 
schools.  Such  a  revision  has  already  been  undertaken  by 
many  principals  and  instructors  and  the  results  are  very 
gratifying.  This  revision  has  been  accomplished  mostly  in 
schools  in  which  provision  is  made  for  a  year  course  in 
government  with  supplementary  readings,  field  work,  reports, 
constant  class  discussions  on  current  political  events  and 
the  use  of  graphic  methods  in  the  presentation  of  govern- 
ment facts.  The  content  of  the  course  is  sufficiently  exten- 
sive to  warrant  a  full  year  for  this  instruction.  But  in  many 
schools  it  is  not  practicable  to  devote  a  full  year ,  to  the  sub- 
ject and  the  common  arrangement  is  to  combine  a  half  year 
of  government  with  a  half  year  of  history  or  economics.  An 
experiment  which  is  being  tried  in  some  communities  is  to  offer 
a  full  year  of  social  science  (excluding  history)  combining  topics 
from  elementary  sociology,  economics  and  government  into  some- 


SUGGESTIONS  AS  TO  COUZRSES.  OF  SXUblf^ETC*     101 


what  of  a  unified  course.  This  plan,  although  it  has  many  ad- 
vocates, has  not  been  sufficiently  tried  nor  well  enough  developed 
by  secondary  school  instructors  to  offer  any  definite  guidance 
to  teachers.  Moreover,  a  large  part  of  the  content  does  not  fall 
within  the  jurisdiction  of  this  Association.  And  while  the  devel- 
opment of  methods  and  courses  of  study  naturally  will  be  the 
result  of  the  work  of  educators  in  the  secondary  schools,  never- 
theless it  seems  to  this  committee  that  the  American  Economic 
Association  and  the  Sociological  Society  should  join  with  the 
Political  Science  Association,  the  National  Education  Associa- 
tion and  the  Bureau  of  Education  in  the  furtherance  and  direc- 
tion of  Social  Science  instruction  in  secondary  schools.  To  this 
end  a  committee  should  be  constituted  from  the  various  organi- 
zations and  agencies  interested  in  this  work  to  aid  in  the  prepa- 
ration of  courses  of  study  and  in  the  unification  of  instruction 
in  the  public  schools  and  higher  institutions. 

For  the  schools  which  now  give  a  full  year  to  the  study  of  gov- 
ernment, for  those  which  give  a  half  year  to  the  subject,  and  for 
the  government  portion  of  a  course  where  the  social  science 
plan  is  undertaken  the  committee  offers  a  few  suggestions. 
The  topics  included  can  be  treated  briefly  or  expanded  to  suit 
the  special  needs  of  each  instructor.  And  above  all,  the  sugges- 
tions are  presented  in  a  tentative  form  for  such  adoption  and  use 
as  may  seem  advisable  in  each  individual  instance. 

SUGGESTIONS  FOR  A  COURSE  IN  CIVICS  FOR  SENIOR 
HIGH  SCHOOL1 

General  Suggestions 

The  relation  to  each  other  of  the  local,  state  and  federal  units  of  gov- 
ernment is  presented  on  large  charts  which  are  before  the  eyes  of 

1  This  outline  is  meant  to  do  nothing  more  than  suggest  a  method  of  ap- 
proach, and  is  not  submitted  as  a  syllabus  in  civics.  Its  preparation  is 
largely  the  work  of  Messrs.  W.  W.  Rogers,  S.  J.  Jumnefsky,  E.  D.  Lewis, 
G.  D.  Luetscher,  and  H.  C.  Thomas  of  the  New  York  City  high  schools,  with 
the  cooperation  of  Messrs.  S.  B.  Howe  and  D.  C.  Knowlton  of  New  Jersey, 


102     ;, ;r&E;  'ZEA:HING:GF  GOVERNMENT 

the  pupils  as  much  of  the  time  as  is  possible.  The  charts  are 
thoroughly  explained  at  one  of  the  early  meetings  of  the  class,  and 
are  referred  to  in  discussion  with  sufficient  frequency  to  plant 
their  content  permanently  in  the  minds  of  the  pupils  as  the  basis 
of  all  their  thinking. 

The  relation  to  each  other  of  the  elementary  functions  of  government, 
— legislation,  adjudication  and  administration, — is  also  graphically 
presented  in  a  similar  way  to  that  used  for  the  geographical  units. 

Each  student  is  provided  with  a  convenient  handbook  of  facts  and 
early  in  the  course  is  taught  the  method  of  finding  the  information 
he  wishes  in  addition  to  that  given  in  the  handbook  by  consulting 
indices,  encyclopedias  and  the  like. 

Consequently  it  is  possible  to  devote  a  large  part  of  the  time  as- 
signed to  "recitation"  to  discussion,  the  purpose  of  which  is  to 
answer  the  questions  suggested  to  the  pupils  by  their  reading;  to 
select  for  them  those  facts  which  it  is  important  for  them  to  try  to 
remember;  and  to  organize  those  facts  into  a  system  of  political 
thought. 

PART  I 
State  Government 

This  topic  is  placed  first  because  the  American  State  is  the  basic  unit 
of  government  with  us.  All  other  geographical  units  are  divisions 
of  the  state  except  the  United  States  which  is  a  federation  of  com- 
monwealths. The  laws  determining  all  of  our  fundamental  rights 
and  duties  and  a  large  majority  of  our  legal  relations  are  state 
laws;  but  state  government  has  been  woefully  neglected,  and  is  at 
present  the  least  efficient  of  all  our  public  activities. 

I.  Legislation  is  the  basic  political  function  and  may  be  divided  into 
three  kinds: 

(A)  Constitution-making. 

(B)  Statute-making. 

(C)  Ordinance-making. 

(A)  Constitutions.1 

(a)  The  origin  of  the  idea. 

(1)  Constitutions  of  clubs  and  societies. 

(2)  Charters  of  corporations. 

(3)  Colonial  charters. 

1  Each  pupil  is  required  to  familiarize  himself  somewhat  with  the  character- 
istics of  the  constitution  of  his  own  state,  and  the  charter  of  his  own  city. 


SUGGESTIONS  AS  TO  COURSES  OF  STUDY,  ETC.     103 

(b)  Methods  of  writing  constitutions  in  America. 

(c)  The  ideal  constitution. 

(d)  Outline  of  the  content  of  several  representative  state 

constitutions. 

(1)  Bill  of  rights,  and  its  purpose. 

(2)  The  machinery  of  government. 

(3)  Miscellaneous  provisions  and  their  growth. 

(4)  Methods  of  amendment. 

(B)  Statute-making,  and  the  meaning  of  law.1 

(a)  Direct  legislation;  initiative  and  referendum;  methods 

and  results. 

(b)  Legislation  through  representatives. 

(1)  Organization  of  the  legislature.2 

Methods  of  apportioning  and  electing  members. 
The  bicameral  vs.  the  unicameral  system. 
Officers  of  the  legislative  chambers. 
Committees. 

(2)  Methods  of  procedure. 

Annual  vs.  biennial  sessions. 
Freedom  of  debate. 
The  governor's  message. 
The  party  pledges. 
The  initiation  of  bills. 
Methods  of  drafting  bills. 
Committee  hearings  and  reports. 
Safeguards  in  the  constitution  and  the  rules. 
The  governor's  veto. 

The  test  before  the  courts.    Power  of  the  courts 
over  legislation  under  our  system. 

1Here  the  teacher  takes  time  to  make  clear  the  idea  of  law  as  the  basis 
of  social  order  using  for  illustration  the  rules  of  the  school,  and  if  they  are 
available  the  rules  enacted  by  the  pupil  self-government  organization  or 
the  athletic  association.  It  is  improbable  that  all  teachers  will  be  able  to 
convey  to  pupils  an  adequate  idea  of  the  relation  of  law  to  peace,  justice  and 
contentment;  even  those  teachers  who  have  the  idea  clear  in  their  own 
minds  may  not  be  able  to  convey  it  because  of  the  immaturity  of  the  pupils. 
But  without  a  fair  conception  of  law,  a  study  of  government  is  an  aimless 
and  a  formless  confusion. 

2  Compare  with  the  English  house  of  commons  and  the  English  cabinet 
when  possible. 


104  THE  TEACHING  OF  GOVERNMENT 

(3)  Defects  in  the  system. 

Lack   of  responsible   leadership,   Cf.   English 
Prime  Minister. 

Lack  of  efficient  drafting  methods. 

Log-rolling  and  lobbying. 

Excessive  quantities  of  statutes. 

Special  and  local  legislation. 

Temptation  to  young  and  inexperienced  mem- 
bers of  the  legislature. 
,  (4)  Suggested  remedies. 

Well  guarded  possibilities  of  direct  legislation. 

Leadership  by  the  governor  and  his  cabinet. 

A  larger  amount  of  popular  interest  and  a 
keener  sense  of  the  citizen's  responsibilities. 

Proportional  representation. 

An  efficient  system  of  Bill  Drafting. 

(C)  Ordinance-making. 

(a)  Legislative  powers  delegated  to  counties  and  munici- 

palities in  the  constitution  or  in  the  statutes. 

(b)  Methods  of  legislation  in  the  county. 

(c)  Town  meetings  and  their  legislative  processes. 

(d)  Municipal  legislation.1 

Boards  of  Aldermen,  city  councils  and  commissions. 

II.  Adjudication  is  the  process  of  interpreting  the  laws  and  deter- 
mining when  they  have  been  violated  by  offenses  against  in- 
dividuals or  against  society. 
(A)  Organization  of  the  courts. 

(a)  The  system  and  basis  of  graded  courts. 

(1)  Minor  courts. 

(2)  County  courts. 

(3)  State  courts. 

(4)  Special  courts, — probate,  claims,  juvenile,  etc. 

(b)  Officers  of  the  courts. 

(i)  Judges. 

Function  of  the  judge  fully  set  forth. 
Methods  of  selection. 

1  The  discussion  of  legislation  for  a  state  applies  with  equal  force  to  that 
for  a  municipality  as  to  number  of  chambers,  sessions,  methods  of  organiza- 
tion, and  the  nature  of  the  output.  Each  teacher  must  adjust  his  discus- 
sion to  the  locality  in  which  he  lives,  whether  town,  county,  or  city. 


SUGGESTIONS  AS  TO  COURSES  OF  STUDY,  ETC.     105 

Length  of  term. 

Salary. 

Removal. 

(2)  Juries. 

Kinds  of  juries,  their  origin  and  the  function  of 

each. 
Methods  of  selection. 

(3)  Prosecutors  and  public  defenders. 

(4)  Other  officers,  clerks,  recorders,  etc. 

(5)  The  bar  and  legal  ethics. 

(B)  Procedure.1 

(a)  Criminal  procedure. 

(b)  Civil  procedure. 

(C)  Defects  in  our  system. 

(a)  Prolonged  litigation. 

(b)  Expensive  litigation. 

(c)  Complicated  and  technical  processes. 

(D)  Proposed  remedies. 

(a)  A  higher  type  of  judge. 

(1)  By  appointment  instead  of  election. 

(2)  By  a  public  opinion  demanding  a  better  type  of 

judge. 

(b)  Simplification  of  our  rules  of  practice. 

(c)  A  more  intelligent  system  of  legislation  which  may  pro- 

duce laws  that  are  intelligible. 

III.  The  Execution  of  the  Law  and  the  administration  of  Public 

Affairs. 

(A)  The  machinery  of  administration.2 
(a)  For  the  State  as  a  whole. 

1  Pupils  visit  a  court  room  when  possible.    If  this  is  not  possible,  the 
teacher  should  make  plain  to  them  in  outline  under  a  and  b,  such  elements 
as  the  complaint,  the  answer,  the  charge  to  the  jury,  and  the  like.    A  well 
conducted  mock  trial  is  found  to  be  useful  for  this.     Attention  will  be  cen- 
tred on  these  steps  as  parts  of  an  effort  to  secure  justice;  not  as  part  of  a 
formidable  system  to  be  learned  like  the  irregular  verbs  or  the  location  of 
Madagascar. 

2  As  far  as  is  practicable,  the  information  under  A  is  graphically  presented 
in  charts.    No  more  time  is  given  in  class  to  recitation  about  machinery 
than  is  necessary  to  stimulate  the  pupil  to  remember  the  important  facts. 


io6  THE   TEACHING  OF  GOVERNMENT 

(1)  The  governor. 

Method  of  nomination  and  election.1 
Party  machinery. 
Party  activity. 
Ballots  and  ballot  laws. 
Primary  system. 

(2)  Other  state  officials,  and  their  selection. 

The  short  ballot  system. 

(3)  The  permanent  civil  service. 

The    difference    between    policy    determining 

officials  and  civil  servants. 
Some  idea  of  the  history  of  the  merit  system. 
The  difficulties  placed  in  the  way  of  the  system 

by  the  defects  of  human  nature. 

(4)  Boards,  commissions,  and  general  confusion. 

(b)  For  the  County. 

The  officers  and  their  selection. 

(c)  For  the  Town. 

The  officers  and  their  selection. 

Generally  the  interest  of  the  work  conducted  as  this  outline  indicates  is 
sufficient  to  accomplish  this  purpose.  It  is  particularly  important  for  the 
success  of  the  work  that  the  teacher  feel  obliged  to  teach  only  the  facts 
that  he  knows,  and  not  try  to  prepare  his  lessons  from  day  to  day.  He  should 
be  content  to  teach  the  government  of  the  local  unit  and  State  in  which  his 
school  is  situated;  and  if  he  does  not  know  the  organization  of  these  he 
should  make  an  earnest  effort  during  some  summer  vacation  to  learn  them 
thoroughly.  He  should  not  hesitate  to  say  frankly  that  he  does  not  know 
all  about  the  complicated  mechanism  of  government,  but  is  willing  to  help 
the  pupils  to  learn  as  much  of  it  as  they  wish  to  learn.  He  will  of  course 
avail  himself  of  the  help  to  be  gotten  from  the  published  reports  of  public 
officials  of  his  locality  and  State.  Many  helpful  pictures  may  be  obtained 
and  in  some  states  lantern  slides  are  available  for  an  occasional  illustrated 
lecture. 

1  Here  is  presented  the  organization  of  political  parties  in  the  State  under 
consideration,  with  the  relation  of  this  organization  to  the  national  parties. 
The  methods  of  nominating  and  electing  public  servants  may  here  be  made 
clear  once  for  all.  Some  teachers  find  it  preferable  to  do  this  above  (B,  b,  i) 
when  the  selection  of  representatives  for  the  legislature  is  under  discussion. 
It  is  particularly  desirable  that  a  teacher  teach  government  in  the  way  he 
sees  it,  leaving  room  in  his  discussion  for  differences  of  opinion  and  point  of 
view  and  avoiding  emphasis  on  matters  of  opinion.  He  cannot  make  it 
vital  unless  he  teaches  his  way  what  he  sees. 


SUGGESTIONS  AS  TO  COURSES  OF  STUDY,  ETC.  107 

(d)  For  the  City. 

The  officers  and  their  selection. 

(1)  Under  the  old  system. 

(2)  The  commission  plan  of  city  government. 

(3)  The  commission  manager  plan. 

(B)  Problems  of  administration.1 

(a)  The  preservation  of  peace  and  order,  the  police  and  the 

militia. 

(b)  The  protection  of  property  and  persons. 

(c)  The  preservation  of  health.2 

1  Each  of  the  main  functions,  the  efficient  performance  of  which  consti- 
tutes the  problem  of  the  ministrant  side  of  government,  is  studied  by  the  class 
as  fully  as  the  time  available  permits;  and  time  is  saved  from  the  discussion 
of  machinery  and  organization  for  much  fuller  discussion  of  these  functions 
than  has  heretofore  been  the  custom.    Not  a  few  teachers  find  it  advisable 
to  present  at  this  point  in  one  meeting  of  the  class  an  outline  of  the  organiza- 
tion of  the  federal  administration,  and  then  in  the  discussion  of  each  of  the 
functions  taken  up  bring  into  the  discussion  the  part  played  by  the  Federal 
government  as  well  as  that  by  the  State  and  the  local  unit  in  which  the  school 
is  situated.    The  class  takes  up  each  function  with  the  notion  clearly  in 
mind  that  here  is  a  great  social  problem  (the  preservation  of  health,  the 
education  of  citizens,  the  care  of  dependent  and  delinquent  classes)  and  pro- 
ceeds to  study  the  present  available  methods  for  its  solution,  incidentally 
learning  something  of  the  difficulties  in  the  way  of  the  organization  of  public 
activities,  the  selection  of  officials,  and  the  securing  of  public  support  for 
efficient  servants  who  are  not  also  efficient  politicians.  -, 

2  It  is  of  course  impossible  for  all  of  any  class  to  study  all  of  the  functions 
of  government  thoroughly,  and  it  is  unnecessary  that  this  be  done.    The 
object  sought  is  not  information  about  these  functions,  but  a  conception  of 
the  way  government  works, — a  vital  grasp  of  the  thing  from  an  observation 
of  its  detail.     One  small  group  of  students  in  a  class  takes  up  the  organiza- 
tion for  the  care  of  health,  and  reports  on  this  to  the  class.    They  study 
what  is  done  by  the  local  board  of  health,  the  powers  of  the  board,  its  rela- 
tion to  the  state  board,  the  relation  of  both  to  Federal  organs  such  as  the 
Public  Health  Service  of  the  Treasury  Department.    They  know  something 
of  pure  food  activities  of  the  Department  of  Agriculture  and  of  the  State; 
the  quarantine  laws;  and  the  like.    They  thus  grasp  as  fully  as  children  of 
their  age  can,  the  complicated  system  of  health  administration  and  form 
some  idea  of  the  pernicious  influence  of  that  type  of  politician  who  thinks 
any  faithful  henchman  is  suitable  for  a  job  in  the  health  department.    It  is 
advisable  to  specialize  a  part  of  this  work  when  possible  by  the  discussion 
of  some  epidemic  or  nuisance  with  which  the  pupils  are  acquainted  in  their 
home  lives. 


108  THE  TEACHING  OF  GOVERNMENT 

i 

(d)  Education.1 

(e)  Conservation  and  development  of  public  resources,  in- 

cluding agriculture. 

(f)  Public  works,  roads  and  buildings. 

(g)  Art  and  aesthetic  development. 

(h)  City  planning  and  the  development  of  the  city  and 

country  for  future  generations, 
(i)  Charities  and  correction. 

(C)  Defects  in  our  system. 

(a)  Excessive  respect  for  individual  rights. 

(b)  The  spoils  system  still  surviving  in  the  civil  service. 

(c)  The  long  ballot  which   makes  intelligent   election 

impossible. 

(d)  Popular  indifference  to  efficiency  in  public  and  pri- 

vate affairs. 

(e)  Public  ignorance  of  the  nature  of  the  work  of  govern- 

ment and  therefore  inability  to  judge  the  nature  of 
the  public  service  required. 

(f)  Superstitious  reverence  for  the  separation  of  powers. 

1  Another  group  of  the  same  class  may  study  and  report  on  the  educa- 
tional function.  There  is  no  more  illuminating  subject  for  our  general  pur- 
pose. The  cost  of  the  schools  as  represented  in  the  city,  the  State  and  the 
Federal  budgets;  the  powers  of  the  local  school  boards;  of  the  State  superin- 
tendent of  education;  the  service  rendered  by  the  Federal  Bureau,  with  its 
splendid  system  of  collecting  and  distributing  information.  The  overlap- 
ping of  functions  and  the  resulting  waste  of  energy  when  various  units 
proceed  to  the  collecting  of  information  on  the  same  subjects,  here  appear. 
Under  the  growing  activities  of  the  schools,  such  as  free  lunches,  playground 
equipment,  etc.,  there  is  introduced  an  elementary  discussion  of  the  problems 
of  socialism  and  individualism.  The  public  educational  institutions  are  con- 
trasted with  the  private  ones.  Lunch  rooms  run  by  the  school  are  con- 
trasted with  lunch  rooms  to  which  the  pupils  might  go  in  the  vicinity  which 
are  run  by  private  persons.  Paternalism  is  explained  to  some  extent  in  the 
discussion  of  the  compulsory  education  law,  and  the  requirements  that  the 
health  of  the  pupils  be  cared  for.  Here  the  group  on  this  subject  overlap 
with  the  group  studying  health,  and  some  interesting  discussion  generally 
results. 


SUGGESTIONS  AS  TO  COURSES  OF  STUDY,  ETC.     109 

PART  II 

Federal  Government 
A  union  of  commonwealths  for  purposes  which  require  common  action. 

I.  Federal  Legislation. 

(A)  The  Federal  Constitution. 

(a)  Origin  of  our  Federal  system. 

(1)  Articles  of  Confederation  and  earlier  efforts  at 

union. 

(2)  The  critical  period. 

(3)  Economic  and  political  causes  of  the  Conven- 

tion of  1787. 

(b)  Content  of  the  Constitution.1 

(c)  Evolution  of  the  Constitution  under  judicial  deci- 

sions. 

(d)  Evolution  of  the  Constitution  under  public  opinion. 

(e)  Probable  future  development  of  the  Constitution. 

(B)  Federal  Statutes. 

(a)  Review  organization  of  the  legislative  process  as  out- 

lined under  State  government. 

(b)  Powers  of  Congress  under  the  Constitution. 

(c)  Rapid  growth  of  these  powers  through  custom  and 

judicial  decision. 

(d)  The  present  tendency  of  development. 

(e)  The  basis  of  argument  for  local  self-government  as 

opposed  to  centralization  in  legislation. 

II.  Federal  Adjudication. 

(A)  Origin  and  growth  of  the  Federal  courts. 

(a)  Jay's  attitude  toward  their  functions. 

(b)  Marshall  and  his  work. 

(c)  Popular  confidence  in  the  Federal  courts. 

(B)  Review  the  organization  and  procedure  of  the  judiciary  as 

outlined  under  state  government. 

JThe  outline  of  the  Constitution  is  learned.  The  Constitution  itself  is 
not  memorized  but  carefully  studied.  Studying  many  books  about  a  Con- 
stitution which  is  not  read  is  a  common  practice,  but  one  that  cannot  be 
defended. 


no  THE  TEACHING  OF  GOVERNMENT 

(C)  Relation  of  the  Federal  to  the  State  courts  as  regards  au- 

thority and  fields  of  activity. 

Illustrate  with  one  or  two  examples  of  conflict. 

(D)  Compare  the  Federal  judges  with  those  of  the  States  as 

regards  reputation  and  efficiency;  and  explain  the  ad- 
vantages held  by  the  Federal  judges. 

III.  Federal  Administration. 

(A)  Review  the  discussion  of  the  State  administration,  sub- 
stituting the  President  for  the  Governor. 

(B)  Currency  and  Banking. 

(a)  A  medium  of  exchange. 

(b)  A  means  of  securing  an  elastic  currency. 

(c)  Government  supervision. 

(d)  The  National  Bank  Act. 

(e)  The  Federal  Reserve. 

(C)  The  Army  and  Navy. 

(D)  The  Postal  Service. 

(E)  Promotion  of  Commerce  and  Industry. 

(F)  Government  of  Dependencies. 

(a)  Review  the  administration  of  territories  by  our  gov- 

ernment since  the  Ordinance  of  1787. 

(b)  The  American  colonial  policy  is  altruistic,  not  one 

of  exploitation. 

(c)  Discuss  the  holding  of  dependencies  in  the  light  of 

the  principles  of  the  Declaration  of  Independence. 

(G)  International  Affairs. 

(a)  The  President  and  the  Secretary  of  State. 

(b)  The  Diplomatic  system. 

(1)  Its  purpose. 

(2)  Its  origin  and  growth. 

(3)  Its  relation  to  spoils  and  patronage. 

(4)  Methods  of  improving  the  diplomatic  personnel. 

(c)  The  consular  system. 

(1)  Its  purpose. 

(2)  Its  personnel  and  present  weakness. 

(3)  The  need  of  the  merit  system  in  this  service. 


SUGGESTIONS  AS  TO  COURSES  OF  STUDY,  ETC.     in 

(d)  Our  foreign  policy. 

(1)  Entangling  alliances. 

(2)  The  Monroe  Doctrine. 

(3)  Pan- Americanism. 

(4)  The  open-door  in  the  East. 

(5)  Our  best  ideals  of  treating  weaker  nations. 

(6)  International  arbitration. 

(7)  The  idea  of  a  federation  of  the  world  for  in- 

ternational law,  a  court  to  interpret  it,  and 
sufficient  force  to  have  the  court's  awards  re- 
spected. 

II.  BIBLIOGRAPHIES1 
A.  SOME  REFERENCES  ON  METHODS  OF  TEACHING.1 

Abelow,  Samuel  P.   Civics,  Grades  4A  to  6B,  inclusive.    New  York 

Teachers'  Monograph,  12:  48-67,  70-76,  78-84,  87-96,  October, 

1910. 
Allen,  William  H.   Teaching  Civics  by  giving  Pupils  Civic  Work  to  do. 

The  American  City,  Feb.,  1916. 
Allix,  E.  H.  Nezard,  and  A.  Meunier.    Instruction  Civique.    Pp.  72. 

Paris,  1910. 
American  Political  Science  Association.    Report  of  Committee  on 

Instruction  in  American  Government  in  Secondary  Schools.    Pp. 

219-57.    Proceedings,  1908.    Baltimore:  Waverly  Press,  1909. 
.    Report  on  Instruction  in  Political  Science  in  Colleges  and  Uni- 
versities.  Pp.  249-270.   Proceedings,  1913. 
.    Report  of  Committee  of  Seven  on  Instruction  in  Colleges  and 

Universities.    Pp.  353-374.    Political  Science  Review,  Vol.  IX, 

No.  2,  1915. 
American  Historical  Association.    Report  of  the  Committee  of  Eight 

on  the  Study  of  History  in  the  Elementary  Schools.   Pp.  xvii,  141 . 

Scribners,  1911. 

1  The  preparation  of  the  bibliographical  lists  was  simplified  by  the  as- 
sistance of  Misses  Buxbaum  and  Soule  and  the  New  York  City  libraries  and 
by  the  cooperation  of  the  Congressional  Library. 

2  Too  large  a  proportion  of  the  writings  on  civics  teaching  is  still  for 
purposes  of  inspiration  rather  than  for  information.    If  the  teacher  can  be 
given  some  more  helpful,  definite  information,  he  is  much  more  likely  to  go 
ahead  with  useful  work  than  if  energy  is  wasted  in  pious  urgings  to  go  ahead 
no  one  knows  whither. 


112  THE  TEACHING  OF  GOVERNMENT 

.  Report  of  the  Committee  of  Five  on  the  Study  of  History  in 

the  Secondary  Schools.     Pp.  69.    Macmillan,  1911. 

.  Report  of  the  Committee  of  Seven  on  the  Study  of  History  hi 

Schools.    Pp.  266.    Macmillan,  1909. 

Ames,  Edgar  W.  A  Method  of  Teaching  Municipal  Government, 
History  Teachers'  Magazine.  Pp.  84-86,  April,  1912. 

Arms,  S.  D.  Teaching  of  Civics.  Emphasis  on  What  Phases?  Pp. 
263-6.  New  York  State  Teachers'  Association  Proceedings, 
1908. 

Aronovici,  Carol.  The  Social  Survey.  Pp.  255.  The  Harper  Press, 
1916. 

Bajot,  Louis  M.  Quel  est  le  genre  d'Education  le  plus  propre  a  former 
au  Administrateur.  Pp.  55.  Paris:  Clerc,  1910. 

Baker,  J.  H.  Educational  Aims  and  Civic  Needs.  Pp.  183.  Long- 
mans, Green  and  Company,  1913. 

Baldwin,  Simeon  E.  The  Relations  of  Education  to  Citizenship. 
Pp.  178.  Yale  University  Press,  1912. 

Barnard,  J.  L.  The  Teaching  of  Civics  in  Elementary  Schools.  Pp. 
40-48.  Proceedings  of  the  Association  of  History  Teachers  of 
the  Middle  States  and  Maryland,  1913. 

.  The  Teaching  of  Civics  in  Elementary  and  Secondary  Schools, 

Pp.  84-90.    Proceedings  of  the  National  Educational  Associa- 
tion, 1913. 

and  Others.     The  Teaching  of  Community  Civics.     United 

States  Bureau  of  Education,  Bulletin  Number  23,  1915. 

.  Training  in  the  Schools  for  Civic  Efficiency,  Annals  of  the 

American  Academy  of  Political  and  Social  Science,  Septem- 
ber, 1916. 

Beach,  W.  G.  The  College  and  Citizenship.  Proceedings  of  the 
Washington  Educational  Association.  Pp.  55-57.  School  Jour- 
nal Publishing  Co.,  1908. 

Beard,  C.  A.  Training  for  Citizenship.  Pp.  53-58.  Proceedings  of 
the  Association  of  History  Teachers  of  the  Middle  States  and 
Maryland,  1913. 

- — .  Politics.    Pp.  35.    Columbia  University  Press,  1912. 
An  essay  introductory  to  the  study  of  politics. 

.  The  Study  and  Teaching  of  Politics.    Pp.  268-274.    Columbia 

University  Press,  June,  1912,  v.  12. 

Boitel,  J.,  and  R.  Foiguet.  Notions  elementaire  d'instruction  civique 
de  droit  usuel  et  d'economie  politique.  Pp.  307.  Paris:  C.  Dela- 
grave,  1910. 


SUGGESTIONS  AS  TO  COURSES  OF  STUDY,  ETC.     113 

Bourgueil,  E.    Instruction  civique.    Pp.  223.    Paris:  F.  Northam, 

1910. 
Bourne,  H.  E.   The  Teaching  of  History  and  Civics  in  the  Elementary 

and  Secondary  Schools.    Pp.  385.    Longmans,  Green,  1902. 
Brereton,  Cloudesley.    The  Teaching  of  Civics  for  the  Future  Citizen. 

Journal  of  Education  (London)  46:  553-55,  August,  1914. 
Bryce,  James.    The  Hindrances  to  Good  Citizenship.    Pp.  138.    Yale 

University  Press,  1910. 
Buck,  Winifred.    Boys'  Self-Government  Clubs.    Pp.  218.    N.  Y., 

1903. 
Burchard,  E.  L.     Laboratory  Method  in  Civics,  Educational  Bi- 

Monthly,  October,  1915. 
Cabot,  Ella  Lyman,  Editor.    A  Course  in  Citizenship.    Houghton, 

Mifflin  and  Company,  1914.    An  outline  month  by  month  for 

the  first  to  the  eighth  grade,  inclusive. 

Commons,  J.  R.    The  Junior  Republic.    American  Journal  of  Soci- 
ology, 3:  pp.  281-96;  433-48, 1897,  1898. 

Compayre,  G.    Lectures  on  Pedagogy.    Pp.  408-416.    Civic  Instruc- 
tion. 
Connelly,  C.  B.    Citizenship  in  Industrial  Education,  Proceedings, 

National  Education  Association. 
Cotton,  F.  A.    Linking  the  School  with  the  Community.    Wisconsin 

Journal  of  Education,  46:  pp.  37-39,  1914. 
Dana,  J.  C.   The  Study  of  a  City  in  the  Schools  of  that  City  (Newark, 

N.  J.).    Pp.  329-335.    Pedagogical  Seminary,  September,  1911, 

Volume  18. 
Davis,  Michael  M.   A  Next  Step  toward  Better  Civics  Teaching.    Pp. 

380-389.    Proceedings,  National  Municipal  League,  1909. 
Denison,  Elsa.    Civic  Cooperation  with  Public  Schools.    American 

City,  September  1911. 
Dewey,  John  and  Evelyn.   The  Schools  of  Tomorrow.    Pp.  316.  E.  P. 

Dutton  &  Co.,  1915. 
Dill,  C.  C.    What  High  Schools  Are  Doing  to  Develop  Right  Ideals 

of  Citizenship.    Pp.  53-55.    Proceedings,  Washington  Educa- 
tional Association,  1908. 
Dunn,  A.  W.    Civic  Education  in  Elementary  Schools.    United  States 

Bureau  of  Education,  Number  17,  1915. 
.  The  Trend  of  Civic  Education.    Annual  Report,  Commissioner 

of  Education,  1914. 
Durbin,  Fannie.    An  Eighth  Grade  Civic  League.    Ohio  Educational 

Monthly,  58:  59-63,  1909. 


114  THE  TEACHING  OF  GOVERNMENT 

Ellwood,  C.  A.    The  Place  of  the  Social  Sciences  in  Education.    Pp. 

544-549.    School  Review,  September,  1907,  Volume  15. 
Folwell,  W.  W.     The  Civic  Education  University  Addresses.     Pp. 

185-224.    H.  W.  Wilson,  1909. 
French,  C.  W.   Social  Education,  3 : 136-147.   Educational  Bimonthly, 

1908. 
Gathany,  J.  Madison.     Practical  Aims  and  Methods  in  Teaching 

of  Civics.    History  Teachers'  Magazine,  4:  20-22,  January,  1913. 
Giesecke,  A.  A.    Questions  in  Municipal  Civics.    Pp.  114.    Bardeen, 

1911. 

Cornell  Study  Bulletins  for  Teachers,  edited  by  C.  de  Garmo. 
Gill,  Wilson  L.    The  Boys  and  Girls  Republic.  »Pp.  99.    American 

Patriotic  League,  1913. 

.  A  New  Citizenship.    Pp.  268.   American  Patriotic  League,  1913. 

Gillette,  John  M.    Outline  of  Social  Study  for  Elementary  Schools. 

American  Journal  of  Sociology,  January  7,  1914,  Volume  19: 

491-509. 
Goodwin,  F.  P.    Why  Teach  Community  Civics.    Ohio  Educational 

Monthly,  August,  1910,  59:  415-20. 
Greenwood,  James  M.    The  Social  Function  of  the  School  and  Getting 

At  It.    Missouri  School  Journal,  31:  99-104;  March,  1914. 
Hadley,  Arthur  Twining.    The  Education  of  the  American  Citizen. 

Pp.  135-149.    Scribners,  1902. 
Z-Haines,  Charles  Grove.    Suggestions  for  the  Teaching  of  Civics  in  the 

High  Schools  of  Texas.    Bulletin,  No.  5,  University  of  Texas, 

1916. 
Hall,  G.  S.    Civic  Education.    Educational  Problems,  Volume  2.   Pp. 

667-82.    Appleton,  1911. 

Hamilton,  W.  B.    Outline  for  History  and  Civics.    Two  Rivers,  Wis- 
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Hill,  Mabel.    The  Teaching  of  Civics.    Pp.  143.    Houghton,  Mifflin, 

1914. 
Hinman,  George  W.    The  New  Duty  of  American  Colleges.  United 

States  63d  Congress,  ist  Session,  Senate  Document  236,  1193. 
Hodges,  L.    Winston-Salem  Plan  of  Training  Boys  for  Citizenship. 

Pp.  617-618.    American  City,  1913,  Volume  8. 
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County,  State  and  Nation.    Published  by  Educational  Depart- 
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Hughes,  E.  H.    The  Teaching  of  Citizenship.    Pp.  240.    Wilde,  1909. 
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Educational  Bi-monthly,  December,  1910,  Volume  5. 
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Pp.  121.    Leipzig:  Teubner,  1913. 
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Lakeman,  F.  W.    Civics.    Pp.  113-128.    Proceedings,  New  Hamp- 
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68. 


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Mattingly,  I.  R.  Teaching  Civics  in  Country  Schools.  West  Vir- 
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Mead,  L.  T.  Patriotism  and  Peace.  How  to  Teach  Them  in  the 
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Monroe,  Paul.  Principles  of  Secondary  Education.  Chapters  XIV 
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Morey,  W.  C.  American  Education  and  American  Citizenship.  Pp. 
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National  Municipal  Leauge  Proceedings  for  the  Years  1901-1909 
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Perrin,  H.  E.  Patriotism  in  the  Public  Schools,  20:  404-14.  Educa- 
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Porritt,  A.  G.  Feminization  of  our  Schools  and  its  Political  Conse- 
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School  City  Methods.    Outlook,  91:  777-778,  April  3,  1907.    World's 


SUGGESTIONS  AS  TO  COURSES  OF  STUDY,  ETC.     117 

Work,  26:  190-95,  June,  1913.    Outlook,  90:  930-48,  Decem- 
ber   26,    1908.     See  also  Outlook,    104:   847-48,   August   16, 


Self-Government  in  Schools  as  a  Training  for  Citizenship.    See  Wel- 

ling, R.  W.  G.    School  City. 
Sheldon,  W.  L.    Citizenship  and  the  Duties  of  a  Citizen.    Pp.  466. 

Welch,  1904. 
Shufro,  James  J.    Term  Plan  in  Civics,  a  Fourth  Grade  Syllabus 

School  Work,  5:  409-25,  January,  1907;  and  9:  53-70,  October, 

1910. 
Simons,  R.  S.    The  Juvenile  Street  Cleaning  League  of  New  York. 

American  City,  3:   163-66,    239-43,  October  and  November, 

1910. 
Skinner,  E.  Mabel.    Civics:  The  Art  of  Citizenship.    National  Mu- 

nicipal Review,  April,  1916. 
Snedden,  David.    What  is  Real  Training  for  Citizenship.    Washing- 

ton Education  Association,  Northwest  Journal  of  Education, 

1911.    Pp.  39-45. 
Social  Studies,  The  Reorganization  of.    National  Education  Associa- 

tion Committee  on  Social  Studies  in  the  Secondary  Schools. 

Proceedings,  1913,  Volume  4:  491-96;  also  Bulletin  41,  1913, 

of  Bureau  of  Education  of  the  United  States. 
Stowe,   Lyman  Beecher.     School  Republics.     Outlook,  90:   939- 

48. 
Sullivan,  James.    Training  for  Citizenship.    Pp.  48-52.    Proceedings, 

History  Teachers  Association  of  the  Middle  States  and  Maryland, 


-  .  Civics.     Pp.  24-28.     In  Cyclopedia  of  Education  by  Paul 

Munroe,  Volume  2.    Macmillan,  1911. 
*      Syllabus  of  Civics  for  High  Schools.    Regents  of  the  State  of  New 

York,  1910. 
Syllabus  of  Civics  for  Elementary  Schools.     Board  of  Education, 

Philadelphia,  1916. 
Todd,  E.  S.    Economic  Basis  for  Civics  Teaching.    Education,  32: 

436-44,  478-84;  March-  April,  1912. 
Training  for  Public  Service.    Publications  of  the  New  York  Bureau 

of  Municipal  Research. 

Trotter,  W.  F.    The  Citizen  and  His  Duties.    Pp.  115.    1907. 
United  States  Bureau  of  Education. 

Civic  Education  Series: 

Community  Civics,  What  Is  It? 


Ii8  THE  TEACHING  OF  GOVERNMENT 

What  Training  for  Citizenship  Means. 

Civic  Education  in  Schools. 

Civic  Education  in  Secondary  Schools. 

Also  Bulletins: 

No.  12, 1913.    Promotion  of  Peace. 

No.  41,  1913.    Social  Studies  in  Secondary  Schools. 

No.  47,  1913.    Civics  Material  in  Government  Publications. 

No.  17,  1915.    Civic  Education  in  Elementary  Schools. 

No.  23,  1915.    The  Teaching  of  Community  Civics. 
These  publications  may  be  had  from  the  Bureau  of  Education 
at  Washington,  or  from  the  Superintendent  of  Public  Documents  by 
the  payment  of  5  or  10  cents  for  each. 
Wauer,  A.    Was  Soil  der  Deutsche  Staatsburger  Wissen?    Pp.  17. 

Meissen,  1910. 

Welling,  R.  W.  G.    Pupil  Self-Government  as  a  Training  for  Citizen- 
ship.   National  Education  Association  Proceedings,  1911,  105-9. 

1903,  98-102. 
White,  A.  D.    The  Provision  for  Higher  Instruction  Bearing  Directly 

upon  Public  Affaris.    House  Executive  Document  42,  Part  2, 

46th  Congress,  3d  Session. 
.  Education  in  Political  Science.    Pp.  51.    Baltimore:  Murphy, 

1879. 
.  European  Schools  of  History  and  Politics.     Johns  Hopkins 

University  Studies,  Series  5,  Volume  12. 
Wilcox,  D.  F.    The  American  City,  Chapter  IV.    Civic  Education. 

Pp.  91-120.    Macmillan,  1904. 
Wilson,  Woodrow.   The  Study  of  Politics.    An  Old  Master  and  other 

Essays.    Pp.  31-57.     Scribners,  1893. 

Wolfe,  A.  B.    Shall  We  Have  an  Introductory  Course  in  Social  Sci- 
ences?    Journal  of  Political  Economy,   22:   253-67.     March, 

1914. 
Wolf,  H.    Angeordnete  Geschichte  einer  Erziehung  Zum  Politische 

Denken  und  Wollen.    Pp.  8-22.    Pedagische  Archive,  1911. 
Wylie,  R.  C.    Our  Training  Schools  for  Citizenship.     Bibliotheca 

Sacra,  61:  462-82.    July,  1904. 
Zimmermann,  P.    StaatsburgerHche  Erziehung.    Pp.  67.    Verlag  der 

Mainbriick,  1909. 

A  few  representative  Elementary  School  Texts. 

Ashley,  R.  L.    Government  and  the  Citizen.    Pp.  252.    Mac- 
millan, 1904. 


SUGGESTIONS  AS  TO  COURSES  OF  STUDY,  ETC.     119 

Dunn,  A.  W.  The  Community  and  the  Citizen.  Pp.  312. 
Heath,  1914. 

Forman,  S.  E.  Essentials  in  Civil  Government.  Pp.  251.  Ameri- 
can, 1909. 

Guitteau,  W.  B.  Preparing  for  Citizenship.  Pp.  238.  Houghton, 
Mifflin,  1913. 

Hill,  Mabel.  Lessons  for  Junior  Citizens.  Pp.  234.  Ginn, 
1906. 

Jewett,  F.  G.    Town  and  City.    Pp.  277.    Ginn,  1906. 

Lapp,  J.  A.  Our  America.  The  Elements  of  Civics.  Bobbs- 
Merrill.  1916. 

McCarthy,  Swan  and  McMullin.  Elementary  Civics.  Pp.  232. 
Thompson,  Brown,  1916. 

Nida,  W.  L.   City,  State  and  Nation.   Pp.  327.   Macmillan,  1915. 

A  few  representative  Secondary  School  Texts.1 

Ashley,  R.  L.  American  Government.  Pp.356.  Macmillan,  1913. 
Beard,  C.  A.  American  Citizenship.  Pp.326.  Macmillan,  1915. 
Forman,  S.  E.  The  American  Republic.  Pp.  359.  Century,  1911. 
Garner,  J.  W.  Government  in  the  United  States.  Pp.  416. 

American,  1913. 
Guitteau,  W.  B.    Government  and  Politics  in  the  United  States. 

Pp.  473.    Houghton,  1911. 
James  and  Sanford.   Government  in  State  and  Nation.   Scribners, 

1914. 
Moses,  Bernard.    The  Government  of  the  United  States.    Pp. 

424.    Appleton,  1910. 
Smith,  J.  W.    Training  for  Citizenship.    Pp.  345.    Longmans, 

1907. 

B.  BIBLIOGRAPHICAL  SUGGESTIONS  FOR  TEACHERS 
i.  General 

Bibliography  of  the  Social  Sciences,   Edited  by  Hermann  Beck; 

Berlin.    One  volume  each  year  since  1895,  the  more  recent  ones 

with  an  index. 
Readers  Guide  to  Economics,  Sociology  and  Political  Science,  Bowker, 

R.  R.,  and  George  lies.    Putnam,  1891,  still  of  some  value. 

1  The  highly  developed  city  high  schools  frequently  use  such  books  as 
Beard's  American  Government  and  Politics,  Macmillan,  and  Bryce's 
American  Commonwealth,  abridged  edition,  Macmillan. 


120  THE  TEACHING  OF  GOVERNMENT 

Bibliography  of  Education,  United  States  Bureau  of  Education, 

under  the  direction  of  J.  A.  Wyer  and  others. 
Bibliography  of  Municipal  Government,  W.  B.  Munro,  Harvard  press, 


Handbook  of  History,  Diplomacy  and  Government,  A.  B.  Hart, 

Cambridge,   1903. 
Most  articles  in  the  better  encyclopedias  provide  bibliographical  in- 

formation. 

Cyclopedia  of  American  Government,  3  vols.,  Appleton,  1914. 
Cyclopedia  of  Political  Science,  Political  Economy  and  Political 

History,  3  vols.    J.  J.  Lalor,  C.  E.  Merrill,  1899. 
Encyclopedia  Britannica,  nth  Edition,  is  a  mine  of  information. 
The  Congressional  Library  service  is  generously  and  ably  given  to  all 

citizens  who  ask  it. 
The  United  States  Government  issues  a  monthly  list  of  publications 

from  the  government  press,  many  of  which  are  valuable  to  the 

teacher  of  government,  and  most  of  which  may  be  had  for  a 

nominal  price. 
The  Municipal  Reference  Library  Notes,  New  York  City,  is  a  weekly 

list  of  publications  bearing  on  municipal  government. 
Manuals  and  handbooks  of  American  and  other  legislative  bodies  are 

of  considerable  interest  to  pupils  if  brought  to  their  attention  and 

explained.    They  generally  contain  legislative  rules  and  parlia- 

mentary practice. 
The  following  handbooks  give  most  of  the  constantly  changing  facts 

of  political  machinery: 
Statesman's  Yearbook,  Macmillan. 
National  Yearbook,  Hammond. 

Whitaker's  Almanack,  London;  American  edition,  Doubleday. 
American  Yearbook,  Appleton. 
South  American  Yearbook,  Gassier,  London. 
Other  yearbooks  for  Russia,  Japan,  South  Africa,  China,  etc. 
HazelTs  Annals,  London. 
The  World  Almanac,  the  New  York  World  Press,  a  surprisingly  full 

collection  of  all  sorts  of  political  information. 
The  Brooklyn  Eagle  Almanac,  particularly  good  for  New  York. 

2.  Periodicals 

Proceedings  of  American  Political  Science  Association,  discontinued 

since  1914.    Vols.  I-XI. 
Proceedings  of  the  National  Municipal  League. 


SUGGESTIONS  AS  TO  COURSES  OF  STUDY,  ETC.     121 

American  Political  Science  Review,  Vols.  I-X. 

National  Municipal  Review,  Vols  I-V. 

Political  Science  Quarterly,  Vols.  I-XXX. 

Proceedings  of  the  New  York  Academy  of  Political  Science,  Vols. 
I-VI. 

Annals  of  the  American  Academy  of  Political  and  Social  Science. 

Vols  I-LXII. 
The  above  series  and  the  current  issues  of  these  publications  contain 

articles,  book  reviews,  and  news  and  notes  of  inestimable  value  for 

reference  use. 

Among  the  more  popular  magazines  may  be  mentioned  as  particularly 
useful  to  the  teacher  of  government,  The  Survey,  The  Indepen- 
dent, The  Forum,  Literary  Digest,  The  Nation,  The  New  Re- 
public, New  York  Times  Monthly  Review  of  Events,  North 
American  Review,  The  Outlook,  The  Review  of  Reviews,  The 
American  City. 

In  English  the  best  indices  to  periodicals  are  Poolers  to  1906,  and 
since  1900  the  Readers  Guide  to  Periodical  Literature. 

3.  Books  for  Libraries  and  for  Reference.     Titles  of  Special  Value  for 
Reference  are  Indicated  by  a  Star 

Adams,  H.  C.  Public  Finance,  Henry  Holt,  1905. 

Agger,  E.  E.  The  Budget  in  the  American  Common- 

wealths, Columbia  University  Stud- 
ies, 1907. 

Ames,  H.  V.  State  Documents  on  Federal  Rela- 

tions, Longmans,  1906. 

Anderson,  F.  M.  The  Constitution  and  Other  Select 

Documents  Illustrative  of  the  His- 
tory of  France,  1789-1907.  Min- 
neapolis, 1908. 

Angell,  Norman  The  Great  Illusion,  Putnams,  1911. 

Ashley,  Percy  Local  and  Central  Government,  John 

Murray,  1906. 

Ashley,  Roscoe  L.  American  Federal  State,  Macmillan, 

1911. 

Bagehot,  W.  English  Constitution,  Appleton,  1909. 

Baldwin,  S.  E.  Modern  Political  Institutions,  Little, 

Brown,  1898. 

— •  The  American  Judiciary,  Century, 

1905. 


122  THE  TEACHING  OF  GOVERNMENT 

Barnett 


Bastable,  C.  F. 
*Beard,  C.  A. 


Beard,   M.   R. 
Bluntschli,  J.  K. 

Bodley,  J.  S.  C. 
Borgeaud,  C. 

Bourinot,  J.  C. 
Brewer,  D.  J. 
Brooks,  R.  C. 
*Bruere,  Henry 
*Bryce,  James 


Bullock,  Charles  J. 
Burgess,  John  W. 


The  Operation  of  the  Initiative,  Ref- 
erendum and  Recall  in  Oregon, 
Macmillan,  1915. 

Public  Finance,  Macmillan,  1903. 

American  Government  and  Politics, 
Macmillan,  1910. 

Readings  in  American  Government, 
Macmillan,  1914. 

The -Supreme  Court  and  The  Con- 
stitution, Macmillan,  1912. 

American  City  Government,  Century, 
1912. 

Economic  Interpretation  of  the  Con- 
stitution, Macmillan,  1913. 

Economic  Origins  of  Jeffersonian  De- 
mocracy, Macmillan,  1915. 

Woman's  Work  in  Municipalities, 
Appleton,  1915. 

Theory  of  the  Modern  State,  Clarendon 
Press,  1895. 

France,  2  v.,  Macmillan,  1900. 

Adoption  and  Amendment  of  Consti- 
tutions in  Europe  and  America, 
1895. 

How  Canada  Is  Governed,  Copp, 
Clark,  1909. 

United  States  Supreme  Court,  Scrib- 
ners,  1903. 

Corruption  in  American  Politics  and 
Life,  Dodd,  Mead,  1910. 

The  New  City  Government,  Appleton, 


The  American  Commonwealth,  2  v., 

Macmillan,  1914. 
Abridged  Edition,  1910. 
Studies  in  History  and  Jurisprudence, 

2  v.,  Oxford,  1901. 
Selected  Readings  in  Public  Finance, 

Ginn,  1906. 
Political    Science    and    Comparative 

Constitutional  Law,  Ginn,  1890. 


SUGGESTIONS  AS  TO  COURSES  OF  STUDY,  ETC.     123 


Butler,  Nicholas  M. 
Carson,  H.  L. 
*Childs,  R.  S. 
*Cleveland,  Frederick  A. 


Cleveland,  Grover 
*Commons,  J.  R. 
Cooley,  T.  M. 
Coolidge,  A.  C. 
Corwin,  E.  S. 
*Cotton,  J.  P. 
*Croly,  H.  D. 
*Dallinger,  F.  W. 
*Dealey,  J.  Q. 
Deming,  Horace  E. 
*Dewey,  D.  R. 
*Dicey,  A.  V. 
*Dodd,  Walter  Fairleigh 


The  Reconciliation  of  Government 
with  Liberty,  Scribners,  1915. 

Why  Should  We  Change  Our  Form 
of  Government?  Scribners,  1912. 

The  Supreme  Court  of  the  United 
States,  Ziegler,  1892. 

Short  Ballot  Principles,  Houghton, 
Mifflin,  1911. 

Organized  Democracy.  An  Intro- 
duction to  the  Study  of  American 
Politics,  Longmans,  1913. 

Municipal  Administration  and  Ac- 
counting, Longmans,  1909. 

Presidential  Problems,  Century,  1904. 

Proportional  Representation,  Crowell, 

1907. 
Principles  of  Constitutional  Law,  Little, 

Brown,  1898. 
The  United  States  as  a  World  Power, 

Macmillan,  1908. 
The    Doctrine    of    Judicial    Review, 

Princeton,  1914. 
The  Constitutional  Decisions  of  John 

Marshall,  Putnams,  1905. 
Promise    of    American    Life,    Mac- 
millan, 1909. 
Nominations   for   Elective    Office   in 

the  United  States,  Longmans,  1897. 
Growth  of  American  State  Constitu- 
tions, Ginn,  1915. 
The  Government  of  American  Cities, 

Putnams,  1909. 
Financial  History  of  the  United  States, 

Longmans,  1907. 
Introduction  to  the  Study  of  the  Law 

of  the  Constitution,  Macmillan,  1915. 
Modern  Constitutions,  University  of 

Chicago  Press,  1909. 
The  Revision  and  Amendment  of  State 

Constitutions,  Hopkins  Press,  1910. 


124 


THE  TEACHING  OF  GOVERNMENT 


Dunning,  W.  A. 
Elliott,  Jonathan 

Evans,  L.  B. 
*Fairlie,  J.  A. 


*Farrand,  Max 
Federalist,  The 

*Finley  and  Sanderson 
*Fish,  C.  R. 


Fishback,  W.  P. 

Follett,  M.  P. 
Foltz,  E.  B.  K. 
*Ford,  Henry  J. 


*Foster,  John  W. 
FuUer,  H.  B. 
Fullerton,  W.  M. 


Political  Theories,  Ancient  and  Mediae- 
val, and  From  Luther  to  Montes- 
quieu, 2  v.,  Macmillan,  1905. 

Debates  in  the  Several  State  Conven- 
tions on  Adoption  of  the  Federal 
Constitution,  Lippincott,  1910. 

Leading  Cases  in  American  Consti- 
tutional Law,  Callaghan,  1916. 

Essays  on  Municipal  Administration, 
Macmillan,  1908. 

Local  Government  in  Counties,  Towns 
and  Villages,  Century,  1906. 

Municipal  Administration,  Macmillan, 
1906. 

The  Records  of  the  Federal  Constitu- 
tion, Yale  University  Press,  1911. 

P.  L.  Ford,  Editor,  Holt,  1898. 

H.  B.  Dawson,  Editor,  Scribners, 
1897. 

H.  C.  Lodge,  Editor,  Putnam,  1888. 

The  American  Executive  and  Execu- 
tive Methods,  Century,  1908. 

The  Civil  Service  and  the  Patronage, 
Harvard  Historical  Studies,  1905. 

American   Diplomacy,   Holt,    1915. 

A  Manual  of  Elementary  Law,  Re- 
vised by  A.  B.  HaU,  Bobbs-Merrill 
Co.,  1915. 

The  Speaker  of  the  House  of  Repre- 
sentatives, Longmans,  Green,  1909. 

The  Federal  Civil  Service  as  a  Career, 
Putnam,  1909. 

The  Rise  and  Growth  of  American 
Politics,  Macmillan,  1900. 

The  Cost  of  Our  National  Government, 
Columbia  University  Press,  1910. 

The  Practice  of  Diplomacy,  Hough- 
ton,  Mifflin,  1906. 

The  Speaker  of  the  House,  Little, 
Brown,  1909. 

Problems  of  Power,  Scribners,   1915- 


Giddings,  F.  H. 


Gillette,  J.  M. 
*Goodnow,  F.  J. 


SUGGESTIONS  AS  TO  COURSES  OF  STUDY,  ETC.    125 

*Garner,  J.  W.  Introduction     to     Political     Science, 

American,  1910. 
George,  H.  Progress    and    Poverty,    Doubleday, 

Page,  1905. 
*Gettell,  Raymond  G.  Introduction  to  Political  Science,  Ginn, 

1910. 
Readings  in  Political   Science,  Ginn, 

1911. 
Problems  in  Political  Evolution,  Ginn, 

1914. 
Democracy  and    Empire,  Macmillan, 

1900. 
Elements    of     Sociology,    Macmillan, 

1898. 
Principles   of    Sociology,    Macmillan, 

1908. 
Constructive  Rural  Sociology,  Sturgis 

and  Walton,  1915 
City  Government  in  the  United  States, 

Century,  1904. 

Comparative  Administrative  Law,  Put- 
nam, 1893. 
Municipal     Government,    Macmillan, 

1909. 
The  Principles  of  the  Administrative 

Law  of  the  United  States,  Putnam, 

1905. 

Politics  and  Administration,  Macmil- 
lan, 1900. 
Social  Reform  and  the  Constitution, 

Macmillan,  1911. 
The  Nature  and  Sources  of  the  Law, 

Columbia  University  Press,  1909. 
National   and   Local    Finance,  P.  S. 

King  &  Son,  1910. 

The  Rise  and  Growth  of  the  Gerry- 
mander, Scott  Foresman,  1907. 
The  American    Doctrine  of    Judicial 

Supremacy,  Macmillan,  1914. 
Constitutional  Law,  Lasalle  Extension 

University,  1914. 


Gray,  John  Chipman 
*Grice,  J.  W. 
Griffith,  E.  C. 
Haines,  C.  G. 
Hall,  J.  P. 


126 


THE  TEACHING  OF  GOVERNMENT 


*Hall,  W.  E. 
Harris,   N.    D. 

Harrison,  B. 
Hart,  A.  B. 


Haskins,  F.  J. 
Hatton,  A.  R. 
*Hershey,  A.  S. 

Hill,  Mabel 
Hillquit,  Morris 

Holland,  T.  E. 

Holmes,  O.  W. 
Holt,  Lucius  Hudson 

*Howard,  B.  E. 
Howard,  G.  E. 

Howe,  Frederic  C. 


Ilbert,  Courtney 
James,  H.  G. 


International  Law,  Oxford,  1910. 

Intervention  and  Colonization  in 
Africa,  Houghton,  1914. 

This  Country  of  Ours,  Scribners,  1901. 

Actual  Government,  Longmans,  1908. 

Introduction  to  the  Study  of  Federal 
Government,  Ginn,  1891. 

American  Government,  Lippincott, 
1912. 

Digest  of  City  Charters,  Chicago 
Charter  Convention,  1907. 

The  Essentials  of  Public  International 
Law,  Macmillan,  1914. 

Liberty  Documents,  Longmans,  1901. 

History  of  Socialism  in  the  United 
States,  Funk  &  Wagnalls,  1910. 

Socialism  in  Theory  and  Practice, 
Macmillan,  1909. 

The  Elements  of  Jurisprudence,  Ox- 
ford, 1910. 

The  Common  Law,  Little,  Brown. 

An  Introduction  to  the  Study  of  Gov- 
ernment, Macmillan,  1915. 

The  German  Empire,  Macmillan,  1906. 

A  Syllabus  of  Comparative  Federal 
Institutions,  University  of  Nebraska, 
1907. 

The  City,  the  Hope  of  Democracy, 
Scribners,  1914. 

European  Cities  at  Work,  Scribners, 
1914. 

The  British  City,  the  Beginnings  of 
Democracy,  Scribners,  1908. 

Wisconsin,  An  Experiment  in  De- 
mocracy, Scribners,  1912. 

The  Mechanics  of  Law  Making,  Co- 
lumbia University  Press,  1914. 

Applied  City  Government,  Harpers, 
1914. 

Principles  of  Prussian  Administration, 
Macmillan,  1913. 


Jenks,  Jeremiah  W. 
*Jones,  Chester  Lloyd 


SUGGESTIONS  AS  TO  COURSES  OF  STUDY,  ETC.     127 

Jenks,  E.  Law  and  Politics  of  the  Middle  Ages, 

Holt,  1905. 
-  A  Short  History  of  the  English  Law, 

Little,  Brown,  1912. 
Principles  of  Politics,  Columbia  Uni- 

versity Press,  1909. 
Readings  on  Parties  and  Elections  in 

the  United  States,  Macmillan,  1912. 
Statute  Law  Making,  Little,  1912. 
Unpopular  Government  in  the  United 

States,  University  of  Chicago  Press, 

1914. 
Responsible  Government  in  the  Domin- 

ions, 3  v.    Oxford,  1912. 
Government    or    Human    Evolution, 

Longmans,  1901. 
Regulation    of    Municipal    Utilities, 

Appleton,  1912. 
Lower  Living  Costs  in  Cities,  Appleton, 

1913. 
Government  and  Politics  of  the  Ger- 

man   Empire,    World    Book    Co., 


Kales,  Albert  M. 

Keith,  A.  B. 
Kelly,   Edmond 
King,  Clyde  L. 


*Kriiger,  Fritz-Konrad^ 


Laband,  P. 
Latane,  J.  H. 
Laut,  Agnes  C. 
*Lawrence,  T.  J.  , 


*Leacock,  S. 
Learned,  H.  B. 
Lee,  Guy  Carleton 


Das  Staatsrecht  des  Deutschen  Reiches, 

Tubingen,  1911. 
America  as  a  World  Power,  Harpers, 

1907. 
The  Canadian  Commonwealth,  Bobbs- 

Merrill,  1915. 
The  Principles  of  International  Law, 

Heath,  1895-1910. 
Documents  Illustrative  of  International 

Law,  Heath,  1914. 
Hand    Book    of    International    Law, 

Heath,  1910. 
Elements  of  Political  Science,  Hough- 

ton,  1906. 
The  President's   Cabinet,   Yale  Uni- 

versity Press,  1912. 
Historical   Jurisprudence,  Macmillan, 

1900. 


128  THE  TEACHING  OF  GOVERNMENT 

Lecky,  William  Edward 
Lefroy,  A.  H.  T. 


Lieber,  Francis 
Lobingier,  C.  S. 
Lodge,  H.  C. 

Lloyd-George,  D. 
*Low,  Sidney 
*Lowell,  A.  Lawrence 


McCall,  Samuel  W. 

*McCarthy,  Charles 
McClain,  Emlin 

McConachie,  L.  G. 
McGehee,  L.  P. 
McKechnie,  W.  S. 
McKee,  T.  H. 
McLaughlin,  Andrew  C. 

MacLear,  A.  B. 

McVey,  Frank  L. 
*Macy,  Jesse 


Democracy  and  Liberty,  Longmans, 

18.99. 
Canada's  Federal  System,  Carswell  Co., 


Political  Ethics,  Little,  Brown,  1838. 
The  People's  Law,  Macmillan,  1909. 
Democracy  of  the  Constitution,  Scrib- 

ners,  1915. 
The    People's    Budget,    Hodder    & 

Stoughton,  1909. 
The  Governance  of  England,  Putnam, 

1914. 

Public  Opinion  and  Popular  Govern- 
ment, Longmans,  1914. 
Essays    on    Government,    Houghton, 

1910. 
The  Government  of  England,  Mac- 

Millan,  1914. 

Governments   and   Parties  in  Conti- 
nental Europe,  Houghton,  1896. 
The  Business  of  Congress,  Columbia 

University   Press,    1911. 
The  Wisconsin  Idea,  Macmillan,  1912. 
Constitutional    Law    in    the    United 

States,  Longmans,  1910. 
Congressional    Committees,    Crowell, 

1898. 
Due  Process  of  Law  under  the  Federal 

Constitution,  Thompson,  1906. 
The  Individual  and  the  State,  Mac- 

Lehose,  1896. 
National  Conventions  and  Platforms, 

Friedenwald,   1906. 
The    Courts,    the    Constitution    and 

Parties,  University  of  Chicago  Press, 

1912. 
Early  New  England  Towns,  Longmans, 

1908. 

The  Making  of  a  Town,  McClurg,  1913. 
Party  Organization   and   Machinery, 

Century,  1904. 


SUGGESTIONS  AS  TO  COURSES  OF  STUDY,  ETC.     129 


*Macy,  J.,  and  J.  W.  Ganna- 

way 
Mahan,  A.  T. 

Maine,  Sir  H. 


Maitland,  F.  W. 
Marriot,  J.  A. 
Marsh,  B.  C. 

Mason,  E.  C. 
Matthews,  Brander 

Medley,  Dudley  Julius 

*Merriam,  C.  E. 
* 

Mm,  j.  s. 

Montesquieu,  Baron  de 
*Moore,  John  Bassett 


Moore,  W.  H. 

*Munro,  W.  B. 
* 


Oberholtzer,  Ellis  Paxson 


Political  Parties  in  the  United  States, 
Macmillan,  1911. 

Comparative  Free  Government,  Mac- 
millan, 1915. 

Interest  of  America  in  International 
Conditions,  Little,  Brown,  1910. 

Ancient  Law,  Holt,  1907. 

Popular  Government,  Holt. 

Justice  and  Police,  Macmillan,  1885. 

Second  Chambers,  Oxford,  1910. 

An  Introduction  to  City  Planning, 
B.  C.  Marsh,  1910. 

The  Veto  Power,  Ginn,  1890. 

The  American  of  the  Future,  Scrib- 
ners,  1910. 

A  Student's  Manual  of  English  Con- 
stitutional History,  Macmillan,  1913. 

American  Political  Theories,  Mac- 
millan, 1906. 

Primary  Elections,  University  of 
Chicago  Press,  1908. 

Essay  on  Liberty,  Longmans. 

The  Spirit  of  Laws,  Macmillan. 

A  Digest  of  International  Law,  United 
States  Superintendent  of  Docu- 
ments, 1906. 

American  Diplomacy,  Harper's,  1905. 

Four  Phases  of  American  Develop- 
ment, Johns  Hopkins,  1912. 

The  Commonwealth  of  Australia,  Max- 
well, 1910. 

Government  of  American  Cities,  Mac- 
millan, 1913. 

Government  of  European  Cities,  Mac- 
millan, 1909. 

Principles  and  Methods  of  Municipal 
Administration,  Macmillan,  1915. 

The  Initiative,  Referendum  and  Recall, 
Appleton,  1912. 

The  Referendum,  Initiative  and  Re- 
call in  America,  Scribners,  1912. 


130  THE  TEACHING  OF  GOVERNMENT 

*0gg,  Frederic  Austin 
Oppenheimer,  Franz 


*0strogorski,  M. 


Poincare,  R. 
Payne,  E.  J. 
Poley,  A. 

Pollock,  Sir  Frederick 


Prussian  Constitution 
Quick,  J.,  and  Garran 
Rae,  John 
Ransom,  W.  L. 
*Ray,  P.  Orman 

Redlich,  J.,  and  Hirst 
*Reinsch,  P.  S. 


The    Governments   of   Europe,  Mac- 

millan,  1914. 
The    State.    Trans,    by    Gitterman, 

Bobbs-Merrill,  1913. 
Democracy  and  the   Organization  of 

Political   Parties,  2  v.,  Macmillan, 

1902. 
Democracy   and   the   Party   System, 

Macmillan,  1910. 
How    France    is    Governed,    Unwin, 


Colonies  and  Colonial  Federation,  Mac- 
millan, 1904. 

Federal  Systems  of  the  United  States 
and  British  Empire,  Little,  Brown, 
1913. 

The  Genius  of  the  Common  Law, 
Columbia  University  Press,  1912. 

An  Introduction  to  the  History  of  the 
Science  of  Politics,  Macmillan,  1902. 

Annals  of  American  Academy  of  Politi- 
cal Science,  July,  1894. 

Annotated  Constitution  of  Australia, 
Australian,  1901. 

Contemporary  Socialism,  Scribners, 
1910. 

Majority  Rule  and  the  Judiciary, 
Scribners,  1912. 

An  Introduction  to  Political  Parties 
and  Practical  Politics,  Scribners, 


Local  Government  in  England,  Mac- 
millan, 1906. 

American  Legislatures  and  Legislative 
Methods,  Century,  1907. 

Colonial  Government,  Macmillan, 
1902. 

Readings  on  American  State  Govern- 
ment, Ginn,  1911. 

Readings  on  American  Federal  Gov- 
ernment, Ginn,  1909. 


SUGGESTIONS  AS  TO  COURSES  OF  STUDY,  ETC.  131 


Rhodes,  J.  F. 
Richardson,  J.  D. 

Roosevelt,  Theodore 


Root,  Elihu 
Rousseau,  Jean  Jacques 
Rowe,  L.  S. 
*Ryan,  Oswald 

Schroter,  A. 
Schuyler,  Eugene 
Sedgwick,  Arthur  George 
Shaw,  Albert 


Sidgwick,  H. 
*Smith,  J.  A. 

Smith,  Munroe 
Snow,  A.  H. 
Stanwood,  E. 
Steffens,  Lincoln 
Stimson,  F.  J. 


World  Politics,  Macmillan,  1900. 

The  Presidential  Office,  Scribners,  1903. 

A  Compilation  of  the  Messages  and 
Papers  of  the  Presidents. 

American  Ideals  and  Other  Essays, 
Social  and  Political,  Putnams,  1897. 

Autobiography,  Macmillan,  1913. 

The  Citizen's  Part  in  Government, 
Scribners,  1907. 

The  Social  Contract,  George  Allen, 
1912. 

Problems  of  City  Government,  Apple- 
ton,  1908. 

Municipal  Freedom,  a  Study  in  Com- 
mission Government,  Doubleday, 
Page,  1915. 

Der  deutsche  Staatsbiirger,  Leipzig, 
1912. 

American  Diplomacy;  the  Furtherance 
of  Commerce,  Scribners,  1901. 

The  Democratic  Mistake,  Scribners, 
1912. 

Political  Problems  of  American  De- 
velopment, Macmillan,  1907. 

Municipal  Government  in  Conti- 
nental Europe,  Macmillan,  1901. 

Municipal  Government  in  Great  Brit- 
ain, Macmillan,  1901. 

Elements  of  Politics,  Macmillan,  1897. 

The  Spirit  of  American  Government, 
Macmillan,  1907. 

Jurisprudence,  Columbia  University 
Press,  1909. 

The  Administration  of  Dependencies, 
Putnams,  1902. 

History  of  the  Presidency,  Houghton, 
1898  (later  continued  to  1909). 

The  Shame  of  the  Cities,  Doubleday, 
Page,  1904. 

The  Law  of  the  Federal  and  State 
Constitutions,  Boston,  1908. 


132 


THE  TEACHING  OF  GOVERNMENT 


Stockton,  C.  H. 
Story,  Joseph 
Taft,  W.  H. 


Thayer,  J.  B. 
Thorpe,  F.  N. 

Tocqueville,  Alexis  de 
Toulmin,  Harry  Aubrey 
Vincent,  J.  M. 
Wallace,  Elizabeth 


Ward,  E.  J. 
Wendell,  Barrett 

Wenzel,  John 


Weyl,  W.  E. 

White,  A.  D. 
Wickersham,  George  W. 

Wilcox,  D.  F. 


Outlines  of  International  Law,  Scrib- 
ners,  1914. 

Commentaries  on  the  Constitution, 
Little,  Brown. 

Four  Aspects  of  Civic  Duty,  Scribners, 
1906. 

Popular  Government,  Yale  University 
Press,  1913. 

Present  Day  Problems,  Dodd,  Mead, 
1908. 

Cases  on  Constitutional  Law,  Cam- 
bridge, 1895. 

The  Federal  and  State  Constitutions, 
United  States  Superintendent  of 
Documents,  1909. 

Democracy  in  America,  Thomas  Henry 
Reeve,  1898. 

The  City  Manager,  a  New  Profession, 
Appleton,  1915. 

Government  of  Switzerland,  Mac- 
millan,  1900. 

The  Constitution  of  the  Argentine 
Republic.  The  Constitution  of  the 
United  States  of  Brazil,  University 
of  Chicago  Press,  1894. 

The  Social  Center,  Appleton,  1912. 

Liberty,  Union  and  Democracy,  Scrib- 
ners, 1907. 

Comparative  View  of  the  Executive 
and  Legislative  Departments  of  the 
United  States,  France,  England  and 
Germany,  Heath,  1909. 

The  New  Democracy,  Macmillan, 
1912. 

Autobiography,  Century,  1905. 

The  Changing  Order.  Essays  on  Gov- 
ernment, Putnams,  1914. 

The  American  City:  A  Problem  hi 
Democracy,  Macmillan,  1904. 

Government  by  all  the  People;  or  the 
Initiative,  the  Referendum  and  the 


SUGGESTIONS  AS  TO  COURSES  OF  STUDY,  ETC.     133 


Willis,  H.  P. 
*Wffloughby,  W.  W. 


*Willoughby,  W.  F. 
*Wilson,  Woodrow 


Recall  as  Instruments  of  Democracy, 

Macmillan,  1913. 
The    Federal     Reserve,    Doubleday, 

Page,  1915. 
The  American  Constitutional  System, 

Century,  1904. 
The  Nature  of  the  State,  Macmillan, 

1903. 
Territories  and  Dependencies  of  the 

United  States,  Century,  1905. 
Congressional  Government,  Houghton, 

Mifflin,  1896. 
Constitutional    Government    in    the 

United  States,  Columbia  University 

Press,  1911. 
An  Old   Master  and  Other  Essays, 

Scribners,  1009. 
The  State,  Heath,  1898. 
Commonwealth   of   Australia,   Little, 

Brown,  1909. 
Political  Parties  and  Party  Problems 

in  the  United  States.   Putnam,  1914. 
City    Government    by    Commission, 

Appleton,  1914. 

Writings  of  Washington,  Jefferson,  Hamilton  and  other  leading  states- 
men. 
Young,  J.  T.  The  New  American  Government  and 

its  Work,  Macmillan,  1915. 

Zueblin,  Charles  American   Municipal   Progress,    Mac- 

millan (Revised  edition),  1915. 

C.  BUREAU  OF  REFERENCE  FOR  STUDY  OF  Civic  AFFAIRS. 

In  addition  to  general  and  special  works  of  reference  such 
as  the  above  it  is  equally  necessary  to  secure  and  have  ready  for 
constant  use  a  considerable  collection  of  material  in  the  form  of 
reports,  documents  and  other  government  publications.  Much 
of  this  material  may  be  secured  by  a  letter  or  card  of  inquiry  to 
the  officer  or  authority  in  charge. 

Among  the  things  which  such  a  Bureau  should  contain  are: 


Wise,  D.  R. 

Woodburn,  James  Albert 

*Woodruff,  Clinton  Rogers 


134  THE  TEACHING  OF  GOVERNMENT 

A.  Official. 

Maps  of  city,  county,  state  and  nation  with  congressional, 
legislative  and  judicial  districts. 

Reports  of  city,  county,  state  and  national  officials,  officers, 
departments,  bureaus,  boards  and  commissions. 

Ballots  for  city,  county,  and  state  elections  in  different  states 
and  communities. 

Notices  for  party  conventions  and  primaries  along  with  cam- 
paign yearbooks  and  official  party  literature. 

Legal  notices  and  blanks  (to  be  secured  chiefly  from  offices  of 
city  and  county  clerks). 

Charters  and  ordinances  for  cities  with  special  ordinances  on 
health  and  sanitation,  building  regulations,  etc. 

B.  Unofficial — publications  and  reports  of 

1.  Local  Chambers  of  Commerce,  Civic  Clubs  and  Improve- 

ment Associations. 

2.  Charity  Organization  Societies,  National  Child  Labor  Com- 

mittee, National  Congress  on  City  Planning,  National 
Civil  Service  Reform  League,  National  Short  Ballot  Asso- 
ciation, National  Housing  Association,  National  Civic 
Federation,  National  Municipal  League,  American  City 
Bureau,  American  Civic  Association,  Russell  Sage  Founda- 
tion, American  Proportional  Representation  League,  Play- 
ground and  Recreation  Association,  National  Committee 
on  Prisons  and  Prison  Labor,  American  Public  Health 
Association,  etc.1 

C.  Maps,  Charts,  Survey  material  prepared  by  students  under  the 

direction  of  the  teacher  of  government. 

1  The  Information  Desk  of  "The  Survey"  gives  the  addresses  of  a  majority 
of  these  organizations  and  societies. 


PART  IV 


REPORT  ON  INSTRUCTION  IN  COLLEGES  AND 
UNIVERSITIES 

I.  Preliminary  Statement. 

During  the  year  1912-13  a  preliminary  report  was  prepared 
dealing  with  instruction  in  political  science  in  colleges  and 
universities.  Data  for  the  report  was  secured  from  catalogues 
and  from  a  form  of  questionnaire  submitted  to  500  institutions.1 

FORM  OF  QUESTIONNAIRE 
Name  of  College  or  University 


COURSES  DEVOTED  TO  POLITICAL   SCIENCE 

Kindly  mark  with  *  courses  required  of  undergraduates 


Courses 

No. 
Hours 

week 

No. 
Under- 
grad- 
uates 

No. 
Grad- 
uates 

Method  of  In- 
struction used, 
(whether  lec- 
tures, recita- 
tions, discus- 
sions, etc.) 

Text 
Books 
or 
Books 
for  re- 
quired 
reading 

Name  of 
Instructor 

American  Gov- 
ernment 
National 
State 
Local,  Rural, 
Municipal 

Comparative 
Government 

'  

Political 
Theory 

Elements  of 
Law 

Additional 
Courses 

1  Acknowledgment  is  due  the  following  men  for  the  preparation  of  reports 
on  the  teaching  of  political  science  in  particular  states,  and  for  valuable 


136  THE  TEACHING  OF  GOVERNMENT 

1.  What  proportion  of  time  and  emphasis  is  given  in  instruction  in 

government  to — 

a.  Constitutional  history? 

b.  Constitutional  and  legal  framework  of  government? 

c.  Governmental  functions  and  activities? 

2.  Is  the  department  of  political  science  rendering  any  practical  serv- 

ice to  the  community  or  state?    If  so,  what  is  the  nature  of  this 
service? 

3.  Are  any  courses  offered  or  is  any  work  specially  designed  to 

train  teachers  who  expect  to  become  instructors  in  govern- 
ment? 

4.  In  case  an  outline  or  syllabus  is  used  with  any  courses  offered  in 

political  science  the  committee  will  appreciate  it  if  copies  of 
same  are  submitted  with  this  report. 

5.  Have  you  any  suggestions  to  offer  relative  to  ways  and  methods  by 

which  the  committee  and  the  association  may  be  able  to  improve 
instruction  in  government? 

Signed 

In  the  year  1913-14  another  questionnaire  was  distributed 
through  the  Bureau  of  Education  in  order  to  supplement  and 
render  more  accurate  information  already  received  as  to  courses 
offered  in  higher  institutions.  From  the  replies  received  and 
information  previously  gathered,  a  record  of  courses  offered  in 
531  institutions  was  prepared.  In  all  but  a  few  cases  the  record 
was  approved  by  an  officer  of  the  college  or  university  and 
represents  correctly  the  courses  announced  1  in  each  institution 
to  May  and  June,  1914. 

assistance  in  the  preparation  of  this  report:  W.  J.  Shepard,  University  of 
Missouri,  W.  M.  Hunley,  University  of  Virginia,  Jesse  S.  Reeves,  Univer- 
sity of  Michigan,  Carl  Christophelsmeier,  University  of  South  Dakota, 
A.  B.  Hall,  University  of  Wisconsin,  Clyde  L.  King,  University  of  Pennsyl- 
vania, J.  E.  Boyle,  University  of  North  Dakota,  H.  A.  E.  Chandler,  Uni- 
versity of  Arizona,  F.  W.  Coker,  Ohio  State  University,  and  C.  S.  Potts, 
University  of  Texas. 

1  It  is  necessary  to  remark  that  the  courses  announced  in  many  instances 
do  not  represent  the  courses  given  in  any  one  year  and  this  is  especially 
true  where  the  courses  are  given  every  other  or  every  third  year  as  is  often 
the  case  in  small  institutions. 


INSTRUCTION  IN  COLLEGES  AND  UNIVERSITIES    137 

Hours  were  recorded  in  the  revised  table  for  the  following 
subjects: 

1.  American  government. 

a.  National. 

b.  State  and  local. 

c.  Municipal. 

2.  General  political  science  (courses  based  on  volumes  such 

as  those  of  Garner,  Leacock  and  Gettell). 

3.  Comparative  government. 

4.  English  government. 

5.  International  law. 

6.  Diplomacy. 

7.  World  politics. 

8.  Jurisprudence  or  elements  of  law. 

9.  Commercial  law. 

10.  Roman  law. 

11.  Administrative  law. 

12.  Political  theories  (History  of  political  thought). 

13.  Party  government. 

14.  Colonial  government. 

15.  Legislative  methods  and  legislative  procedure. 

16.  Current  political  problems. 

17.  Municipal  corporations. 

1 8.  Law  of  officers  and  taxation. 

19.  Seminar. 

20.  Additional  courses. 

For  the  purpose  of  its  report  the  committee  decided  to  include 
all  institutions  which  chose  to  call  themselves  colleges  or  uni- 
versities and  no  effort  was  made  to  classify  institutions  or  to 
eliminate  those  which  ought  more  properly  to  be  grouped  with 
secondary  schools.  The  original  list  for  the  purpose  of  sending 
inquiries  was  prepared  from  the  list  in  the  bulletin  of  the  Bureau 
of  Education  to  which  were  added  a  few  additional  colleges 
from  the  table  in  the  World's  Almanac. 


138  THE  TEACHING  OF  GOVERNMENT 

Courses  in  English  and  American  constitutional  history,  as 
well  as  in  legal  and  political  history  are  omitted  in  the  final 
tabulation  although  it  was  frequently  quite  clear  that  such 
courses  dealt  primarily  with  government  rather  than  history. 
These  subjects  are  offered  in  a  majority  of  schools  in  the  depart- 
ment of  history  and  there  is  a  marked  tendency  to  drop  the 
courses  entirely  or  to  incorporate  them  as  an  integral  part  of  the 
work  offered  in  history.  For  sake  of  uniformity  all  such  courses 
are  omitted,  although  the  committee  recognizes  a  difference  of 
opinion  as  to  the  advisability  of  dropping  these  subjects  from 
the  courses  offered  in  departments  of  government. 

Several  departments  of  political  science  include  public  finance 
and  taxation  which  are  usually  offered  as  a  part  of  the  work  in 
economics.  Public  finance  is  a  subject  to  which  both  economics 
and  political  science  may  rightfully  lay  claim.  It  has  become 
customary,  however,  to  classify  this  study  with  economics  and 
for  practical  purposes  it  may  be  excluded,  even  though  like  some 
other  subjects  in  economics  it  involves  matters  of  government 
and  public  affairs  and  may  with  equal  propriety  be  included 
under  the  scope  of  political  science.  Commercial  law  when 
offered  in  a  commercial  department  of  sub-collegiate  grade, 
and  civil  government,  in  a  sub-collegiate  or  preparatory  de- 
partment, are  necessarily  omitted.  Government  is  often  taught 
in  connection  with  history,  but  when  no  separate  hours  are 
given  to  the  subject  no  credit  could  be  accorded  in  the  tabula- 
tions. 

Some  difficulties  have  arisen  because  courses  in  economics 
and  sociology  are  occasionally  classified  within  the  department 
of  political  science.  Despite  the  fact  that  such  subjects  are 
occasionally  listed  as  political  science  the  committee  has  excluded 
those  which  obviously  belong  to  economics  or  sociology.  For 
this  reason  several  institutions  are  designated  as  offering  no 
courses  in  political  science  in  view  of  the  fact  that  the  scope  of 
work  was  entirely  in  the  fields  of  history,  economics  and  so- 


INSTRUCTION  IN  COLLEGES  AND  UNIVERSITIES    139 

ciology,  departments  of  study  not  within  the  scope  of  this  re- 
port. 

The  table  comprises  primarily  the  courses  presented  to  under- 
graduates and  given  in  the  school  of  arts  and  sciences.  In  the 
lists  of  the  large  universities  many  of  the  courses  included  are 
open  to  graduates  and  undergraduates  while  a  few  are  open  to 
graduate  students  only.  Owing  to  the  lack  of  uniformity  in 
announcing  these  courses  it  was  impossible  to  make  separate 
classes,  consequently  all  of  the  regularly  published  courses  are 
included  whether  open  to  undergraduates,  to  both  graduates 
and  undergraduates,  or  to  graduates  only.  Most  of  the  large 
universities  offer  advanced  work  for  graduates  for  which  hours 
are  not  determined,  and  as  a  result  the  total  hours  for  several 
universities  is  necessarily  smaller  than  the  actual  work  done. 
Since  many  colleges  failed  to  report  the  number  of  courses  and 
hours  actually  given  each  year  the  committee  was  obliged  to 
accept  and  include  in  its  tabulations  the  hours  announced. 
In  a  few  instances  it  is  quite  obvious  that  this  total  by  no  means 
corresponds  to  the  work  given  each  year. 

Political  science  courses  listed  in  the  table  are  sometimes 
offered  in  departments  of  economics  and  history  or  in  the  law 
school.  In  some  instances  regular  law  courses,  including  some 
of  those  covered  in  the  table,  are  open  to  qualified  undergrad- 
uates and  it  is  very  difficult  to  indicate  what  work  is  done  in 
the  field  of  political  science  as  defined  by  the  committee.  The 
relation  between  law  and  political  science  is,  as  one  instructor 
suggests,  in  a  hopeless  confusion,  and  it  doubtless  would  be  ad- 
vantageous for  this  matter  to  receive  careful  consideration  by 
the  Association.  When  it  was  clearly  indicated  that  work  was 
offered  by  other  departments  this  fact  is  noted.  In  the  great 
majority  of  cases  the  record  gives  the  courses  now  offered,  but 
on  account  of  changes  very  recently  made  a  few  colleges  found 
it  necessary  to  present  the  courses  to  be  given  the  next  year. 
Courses  given  in  alternate  years  or  less  frequently  are  usually 


140  THE  TEACHING  OF  GOVERNMENT 

so  designated.  It  is  very  evident  that  the  quality  of  instruction 
varies  widely  and  that  a  bare  total  of  hours  scheduled  overrates  c 
the  emphasis  given  to  political  science  in  some  institutions 
and  underrates  that  given  hi  others.  Some  universities  offer 
cycles  of  courses  and  thereby  cover  a  much  wider  range  than  the 
list  given  in  the  table  would  indicate.  On  the  other  hand,  a 
large  total  of  hours  made  up  mostly  of  elementary  courses  is 
scarcely  to  be  compared  with  the  same  number  of  hours  given 
in  fewer  courses  and  primarily  to  graduate  students,  yet  by  the 
table  such  institutions  might  be  rated  exactly  the  same.  The 
committee  is  aware  of  this  and  other  difficulties  involved  in 
presenting  data  as  to  courses  announced  and  given  in  higher 
institutions.  But  despite  these  difficulties  the  table  presents 
information  which  it  was  thought  should  be  available  to  all 
instructors  in  the  field. 


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183 


184  THE  TEACHING  OF  GOVERNMENT 

III.  Observations  and  Conclusions. 

i.  Inadequate  Provisions  for  Government  Instruction. 

One  hundred  and  eleven  colleges  and  universities  offer  no 
courses  in  any  of  the  subjects  included  in  the  tabulation.  It 
may  be  assumed  also  that  the  majority  of  institutions  which 
failed  to  respond  to  the  inquiries  of  the  committee,  99  in  number, 
are  to  be  considered  as  within  this  class.  In  these  institutions, 
except  for  the  frequent  assurances  from  presidents  and  heads 
of  other  departments  that  government  and  politics  are  ade- 
quately treated  under  economics,  sociology  or  history  there  is 
no  special  consideration  whatever  given  to  the  subject  of  po- 
litical science;  224  institutions  offer  courses  totalling  less  than 
200  hours  (i.  e.,  two  courses  of  three  hours  throughout  the  year), 
and  consequently  may  be  classed  as  not  recognizing  political 
science  as  deserving  of  a  place  in  the  curriculum  as  a  distinct 
department.  As  a  rule  the  subject  in  such  colleges  is  combined 
with  history,  economics  or  sociology  or  some  other  department 
and  only  a  few  elementary  courses  may  find  place  in  an  already 
over-crowded  schedule  for  one  instructor.  The  first  and  second 
classes  comprise  the  institutions  which  give  sufficient  attention 
to  the  subject  to  warrant  a  separate  department,  but  out  of  a 
total  of  177  schools  in  this  class  only  40  separate  the  department 
of  political  science  from  history,  economics,  sociology,  ethics  or 
philosophy.  In  view  of  these  facts  it  may  well  be  asked  whether 
the  colleges  are  equipped  to  train  for  citizenship,  to  prepare 
teachers  of  government  or  to  prepare  for  the  professions  which 
require  an  intimate  knowledge  of  governmental  affairs.  The 
demands  of  an  awakened  social  conscience  and  the  heavy  re- 
sponsibilities cast  upon  the  electorate  through  the  spread  of 
direct  democracy  would  seem  to  require  greater  consideration 
for  the  group  of  subjects  comprised  under  government  or  po- 
litical science  than  is  now  given  in  any  but  a  small  percentage 
of  colleges  and  universities. 

A  large  number  of  institutions  which  either  offer  no  courses 


INSTRUCTION  IN  COLLEGES  AND  UNIVERSITIES    185 

or  announce  less  than  200  hours  is  made  up  of  women's  colleges, 
colleges  of  mines,  agricultural  colleges,  schools  of  technology,  and 
small  denominational  colleges,  hi  some  instances  with  less  than 
one  hundred  students  in  the  undergraduate  department  of  arts 
and  sciences.  Women's  colleges,  it  may  be  claimed,  are  not 
likely  to  have  any  special  demand  for  instruction  in  government 
and  political  affairs,  and  consequently  there  are  good  reasons 
for  excluding  this  group  of  subjects  from  the  ordinary  woman's 
college.  However,  not  a  few  of  the  large  colleges  for  women 
have  found  sufficient  interest  and  enthusiasm  in  public  affairs  to 
offer  some  very  thorough  courses  in  political  institutions.  In 
some  notable  instances  the  colleges  for  women  have  given  a 
recognition  to  these  courses  which  many  of  the  colleges  for  men 
might  well  emulate.  There  scarcely  seems  to  be  any  justification 
to-day  for  the  entire  omission  of  courses  in  government  from  any 
college  for  women  which  has  an  undergraduate  department  of 
collegiate  grade.  There  are  many  indications  that  courses  in 
political  science  have  rightfully  made  their  way  into  the  colleges 
for  women,  and  the  time  is  apparently  not  far  distant  when  those 
in  charge  of  colleges  of  this  type  will  give  matters  relating  to 
government  much  greater  consideration. 

Colleges  of  mines,  agricultural  colleges,  and  schools  of  tech- 
nology form  a  group  under  which  the  courses  offered  must  be 
scientific  and  practical.  These  schools  are  primarily  designed  to 
prepare  for  one  of  the  professions  or  vocations,  and  there  seems 
to  be  neither  time  nor  occasion  to  give  attention  to  such  an 
impractical  matter  as  government.  If  one  may  judge  from  the 
utter  neglect  of  the  study  of  political  affairs  hi  many  such  schools 
it  appears  that  there  is  at  present  no  recognition  of  the  fact  that 
the  incipient  miner,  farmer  or  engineer  may  be  called  upon  to 
take  an  interest  in  the  affairs  of  his  country.  Nor  does  there 
seem  to  be  any  thought  that  it  might  be  worth  while  to  learn 
of  the  responsibilities  and  duties  of  social  beings  as  well  as  of 
ways  and  means  to  earn  a  livelihood.  That  the  miner,  the 


i86  THE  TEACHING  OF  GOVERNMENT 

farmer  and  the  engineer  should  receive  training  along  the 
line  of  their  duties  and  responsibilities  as  social  beings  and 
citizens  seems  scarcely  less  imperative  than  that  they  should 
be  trained  as  efficient  producers.  There  is  ample  evidence 
that  the  efficient  producer  without  a  social  conscience  has 
worked  much  havoc  and  injury.  If  society  is  to  be  protected 
and  its  best  interests  conserved,  the  scientific,  industrial,  and 
so-called  practical  schools  must  find  both  time  and  oppor- 
tunity to  give  instruction  in  economics,  sociology  and  political 
science.  Both  economics  and  sociology  have  slowly  made  their 
way  into  many  of  the  technical  and  vocational  schools. 
A  few  technical  schools  and  agricultural  colleges  have  intro- 
duced the  important  elementary  courses  in  government,  and 
there  is  no  indication  that  the  standard  of  work  in  technology 
has  suffered  particularly  because  the  curriculum  has  been  en- 
riched by  courses  in  political  and  social  affairs.  A  statement 
from  the  Massachusetts  Institute  of  Technology  indicates  the 
type  of  instruction  offered  in  one  of  the  largest  technical 
schools. 

For  admission  and  for  graduation,  a  considerable  amount  of  non- 
professional  training  is  provided  for,  on  the  theory  that  the  institution 
is  equipping  its  graduates  for  citizenship  as  well  as  for  engineering, 
chemistry,  and  architecture. 

So  far  as  government  is  concerned,  the  countries  taken  up  are  the 
United  States,  and  typical  leading  European  forms,  especially  Eng- 
land, France,  and  Germany,  with  slight  attention  to  Switzerland. 
The  emphasis  is  laid  upon  government;  the  history  side  is  mainly 
directed  to  tracing  the  origin  and  development  of  existing  institutions. 
So  much  is  required  of  all.  Furthermore,  as  already  mentioned,  there 
are  third-year  electives,  in  which  "students  are  allowed  to  exercise 
entire  freedom  of  choice,"  though  as  a  matter  of  fact  more  than  one- 
half  of  the  class  elect  one  or  more  of  the  subjects  in  the  field  of  govern- 
ment. These  courses,  at  present,  are  international  law,  municipal 
government,  and  current  public  problems.1 

1  Furnished  by  Professor  C.  F.  A.  Currier,  Massachusetts  Institute  ol 
Technology. 


INSTRUCTION  IN  COLLEGES  AND  UNIVERSITIES    187 

It  remains  to  be  seen  whether  society  as  organized  in  its  legis- 
latures, courts  and  administrative  agencies  will  become  a  matter 
of  sufficient  significance  to  be  given  some  consideration  in  all  of 
the  technical  schools  and  may  be  deemed  worthy  of  more  atten- 
tion by  that  group  of  institutions  which  depend  almost  entirely 
upon  the  state  for  existence. 

The  small  denominational  schools  frequently  do  not  have 
large  enough  faculties  or  enough  students  in  the  collegiate  de- 
partment to  offer  courses  in  political  science.  For  schools  of 
this  sort  the  students  are  fortunate  to  get  a  mere  introduction 
to  the  study  of  public  affairs  in  the  departments  of  history  and 
economics  or  perchance  in  the  department  of  philosophy.  Many 
colleges  would  find  it  neither  advisable  nor  practicable  to  es- 
tablish a  separate  department  in  political  science.  But  none 
can  afford  to  neglect  the  duty  of  providing  adequate  instruction 
in  the  elementary  principles  and  practice  of  government.  An 
instructor  in  one  of  the  small  denominational  schools  makes  the 
apology  that  since  he  is  obliged  to  teach  "nearly  all  of  the  his- 
tory, the  economics,  and  much  of  the  Bible  work"  he  can  offer 
only  one  brief  course  in  political  science.  For  this  situation  there 
seems  to  be  no  remedy  other  than  the  fostering  of  a  public  senti- 
ment which  will  require  that  these  institutions  cease  pretending 
to  offer  four  years  of  college  work  or  that  they  raise  then*  stand- 
ard by  such  increase  of  endowment  as  will  provide  for  a  larger 
faculty  and  better  facilities  for  advanced  instruction. 

2.  The  Function  of  College  Instruction. 

Departments  of  Political  Science  are  called  upon  to  perform 
services  of  three  distinct  types:  (i)  to  tram  for  citizenship;  (2) 
to  prepare  for  professions,  such  as  the  law,  journalism,  teaching 
and  the  public  service;  (3)  to  train  experts  and  to  prepare  spe- 
cialists for  government  positions.  For  the  universities  a  fourth 
group  might  be  added  including  courses  primarily  intended  to 
train  for  research  work.  Universities  alone  can  properly  plan 


i88  THE  TEACHING  OF  GOVERNMENT 

to  prepare  government  experts,  who  in  many  instances  must 
receive  specialized  instruction  such  as  the  departments  of  polit- 
ical science  can  offer  only  in  part.  Courses  designed  to  prepare 
for  research  must  also  be  left  largely,  if  not  entirely,  with  the 
universities. 

The  function  of  college  instruction  in  politics  is  to  train  for 
citizenship  as  well  as  to  train  for  the  professions.  In  performing 
this  function  colleges  too  frequently  confine  attention  almost 
exclusively  to  the  theories  of  the  origin  of  the  state  and  the 
nature  of  law  and  sovereignty,  in  fact,  to  a  consideration  of 
abstract  notions  and  principles  which  find  scant  place  in  the 
actual  operation  of  governmental  affairs.  Much  of  what  is 
comprehended  in  these  abstract  discussions  is  based  upon 
theories  of  law  and  jurisprudence  which  modern  publicists  are 
prone  to  condemn.  However,  it  is  very  gratifying  to  find  a 
marked  increase  in  the  attention  to  Staatslehre,  to  state-theory 
in  contrast  with  state-practice.  The  history  of  political  ideas, 
as  well  as  wrangling  over  such  terms  as  sovereignty,  liberty  and 
law,  ought  to  be  encouraged  rather  than  discouraged.  But 
there  are  indications  that  political  science,  in  some  quarters 
at  least,  has  been  too  strictly  confined  to  theories  about  civil 
society  and  too  little  concerned  with  political  affairs  as  they  are. 
Students  of  politics  like  those  of  other  fields  have  been  inclined 
to  philosophize  and  work  out  abstract  principles  rather  /than  to 
search  laboriously  the  records  and  activities  of  society  in  its 
myriad  and  complex  operations.  It  is  not  proposed  that  less 
attention  be  given  to  political  theory  for  this  subject  eminently 
deserves  the  emphasis  given  it,  as  a  rule,  in  college  courses,  but 
it  is  rather  proposed  that  the  work  in  political  science  be  ex- 
panded so  as  to  complement  the  theory  and  the  abstract  discus- 
sions with  fuller  consideration  of  the  actual  working  of  polit- 
ical institutions. 

Political  science  is  scarcely  old  enough,  particularly  as  pursued 
in  the  United  States,  to  attain  to  the  standard  of  a  well  developed 


INSTRUCTION  IN  COLLEGES  AND  UNIVERSITIES    189 

science.  The  catalogues  of  our  larger  universities  prior  to  1890 
seldom  recognized  political  science  as  a  department  but  an- 
nounced a  few  courses  in  government  under  the  division  of  his- 
tory or  of  political  economy.  It  is  slightly  more  than  thirty 
years  ago  that  the  first  schools  of  political  science  were  opened. 
In  view  of  the  short  time  the  study  of  government  has  re- 
ceived any  attention  or  recognition  from  college  authorities 
the  present  status  of  the  subject  and  the  rapid  expansion 
of  courses  in  the  higher  institutions  is  nothing  short  of  re- 
markable. 

The  returns  from  the  colleges  indicate  several  significant 
facts,  the  most  striking,  perhaps,  being  an  earnest  desire  on  the 
part  of  teachers  to  inaugurate  courses  in  political  science  where 
such  courses  are  not  given  and  to  enlarge  the  work  where  such 
instruction  is  now  provided.  In  letters  accompanying  some  of 
the  reports  this  fact  was  particularly  emphasized  and  in  several 
instances  presidents  of  institutions  took  occasion  to  make  it 
clear  that  efforts  were  being  made  to  offer  courses  in  political 
science  or  to  enlarge  or  improve  those  already  offered.  During 
the  years  that  the  committee  has  been  at  work  a  considerable 
number  of  institutions  have  increased  the  quota  of  hours  devoted 
to  the  subject  whereas  comparatively  a  very  few  have  reduced 
the  hours  formerly  scheduled.  There  is  no  doubt  that  there  is 
a  widespread  and  growing  sentiment  among  teachers,  college 
authorities,  and,  in  fact,  the  public  generally,  that,  of  all  things, 
the  student  should  have,  on  leaving  college,  a  knowledge  of  his 
country's  political  institutions,  their  history  and  their  actual 
operation. 

But  much  remains  to  be  accomplished  to  give  instruction  in 
government  a  rightful  place  in  many  institutions  which  now 
ignore  the  subject  entirely.  The  character  of  some  instruction 
that  passes  under  the  title  needs  to  be  considerably  improved  to 
be  worthy  of  more  consideration  by  men  of  affairs.  And  some 
readjustments  of  emphasis  and  proportions  must  be  made  in 


igo 


THE  TEACHING  OF  GOVERNMENT 


political  science  to  keep  pace  with  the  rapid  strides  in  other 
branches  within  the  general  group  of  social  sciences. 

3.  Attendance  in  Courses. 
Institutions  reporting — 150  1 


Subject 

American  Government 
Comparative  Government 
General  Political  Science 
International  Law 
Jurisprudence 
Constitutional  Law 
Commercial  Law 
Political  Theories 
Municipal  Government 
Party  Government 
State  Government 


Total 

Institutions 

Enrollment 

Average 

1  20 

6,107 

5i- 

67 

2,750 

4i 

45 

992 

22 

55 

1,422 

26- 

22 

753 

34 

2Q 

1,091 

38- 

9 

620 

69 

II 

156 

14 

38 

1,163 

3i- 

15 

473 

3i 

3 

170 

37 

15,697 


Judging  by  the  number  of  institutions  reporting  courses  in 
American  government  and  the  high  average  of  the  classes  it 
appears  that  this  subject  is  growing  in  favor  as  the  basic  ele- 
mentary course  in  the  department.  Comparative  government 
shares  with  American  government  in  favor  as  an  elementary 
course  although  less  than  one-third  as  many  students  in  a  few 
more  than  half  the  number  of  institutions  are  registered  in  this 
course.  The  small  colleges  frequently  give  an  elementary  course 
in  political  theory,  which  accounts  chiefly  for  the  total  of  992 
students  enrolled  in  45  institutions  in  the  subject  designated 
as  general  political  science.  Courses  in  political  theory  are  not 
as  popular  with  instructors  or  with  students  as  formerly.  When 
political  science  was  first  introduced  into  the  college  curriculum 
the  work  was  almost  always  begun  with  a  course  in  political 

1  The  majority  of  schools  which  submitted  reports  on  attendance  were 
large  universities  or  old  and  well  endowed  colleges. 


INSTRUCTION  IN  COLLEGES  AND  UNIVERSITIES    191 

theory.  Now  the  tendency  is  to  offer  instead  practical  courses 
in  American  government,  comparative  government  or  municipal 
government.  But  in  most  of  these  courses  some  attention  is 
given  to  political  theory.  Advanced  courses  in  political  theory 
are  given  as  a  rule  in  the  universities  to  small  groups  of  graduate 
and  undergraduate  students.  Jurisprudence,  constitutional  law 
and  commercial  law  are  offered  chiefly  in  the  universities  and 
usually  to  large  classes. 

A  subject  gaining  in  popularity  and  interest  is  that  of  munici- 
pal government,  now  offered  in  many  colleges  and  reaching  more 
than  a  thousand  students  in  38  institutions.  The  growing  em- 
phasis upon  the  study  of  functions  and  government  in  operation 
will  no  doubt  aid  in  giving  greater  prominence  to  this  course. 
International  law  ranks  third  as  to  number  of  institutions  offer- 
ing the  subject,  but  the  total  of  1,422  students  enrolled  in  55 
schools  indicates  that  with  but  few  exceptions  the  subject  is 
given  to  comparatively  small  classes.  The  course  is  offered 
frequently  in  alternate  years  and  is  as  a  rule  elective  with  the 
result  that  "a  relatively  small  percentage  of  the  students  actually 
elect  international  law  as  a  subject  of  study."  l  According  to 
the  report  of  the  Carnegie  Endowment  for  International  Peace 
in  144  institutions  in  which  international  law  was  taught  in 
1911-12  only  3,646  students  were  enrolled  or  only  3/9  per  cent 
of  the  students  which  were  enrolled  in  those  institutions.2 

The  total  enrollment  in  eleven  subjects,  15,697  in  the  under- 
graduate courses  of  150  colleges  and  universities,  indicates  that 
political  science  is  appealing  to  large  groups  of  students.  This 
enrollment  is  particularly  gratifying  because  of  the  fact  that 
courses  in  the  department  are  almost  invariably  elective,  and 
as  a  rule  they  are  given  only  to  advanced  students.  The  sub- 

1  Report  on  the  teaching  of  international  law  in  the  educational  institu- 
tions of  the  United  States  prepared  by  the  Carnegie  Endowment  for  Inter- 
national Peace,  April  18, 1913,  p.  6. 

2  Ibid.,  p.  29.    This  report  should  be  consulted  for  an  exhaustive  report 
on  the  teaching  of  international  law. 


192  THE  TEACHING  OF  GOVERNMENT 

jects  are  usually  offered  in  the  sophomore,  junior  and  senior 
years  and  frequently  are  open  only  to  juniors  and  seniors.  But 
there  are  many  evidences  to  lead  to  the  conclusion  that  these 
subjects  have  not  been  given  the  consideration  due  them.  When 
institutions  with  more  than  one  thousand  students  enroll  less 
than  twenty  in  government  courses  and  these  are  public  institu- 
tions supported  largely  by  state  funds,  it  leads  to  the  inquiry 
whether  something  in  the  nature  of  a  civic  awakening  in  our  ed- 
ucational institutions  is  not  in  order.  Furthermore,  the  schools 
reporting  constitute  a  majority  of  those  having  strong  and  well 
planned  courses  in  political  science,  and  the  results  would  be  far 
less  satisfactory  if  statistics  were  secured  from  all  of  the  colleges. 
Is  it  not  time  that  educators  at  least  ask  the  question  whether 
it  is  desirable  that  the  great  majority  of  college  graduates  leave 
their  institutions  without  so  much  as  completing  a  single  course 
of  study  devoted  to  their  own  political  institutions  or  those 
of  foreign  countries? 

4.  Text-books. 

Courses  in  political  science  have  been  made  possible  in  small 
institutions  and  have  been  improved  in  large  institutions  by  the 
recent  appearance  of  good  text-books.  The  lines  on  which  more 
adequate  and  thorough  guides  should  be  prepared  are  state 
and  local  government  and  modern  European  governments.  A 
majority  of  works  now  in  use  covering  European  institutions 
give  most  attention  to  political  and  constitutional  history,  with 
the  result  that  the  analysis  of  present  day  political  customs  and 
practices  necessarily  suffers.  Moreover,  texts  almost  invariably 
slight  the  administrative  phase  of  government  and  the  judicial 
department.  In  these  as  well  as  in  other  lines  there  will  remain 
gaps  which  for  many  instructors  cannot  be  filled  until  better 
texts  and  practical  guides  are  prepared.  For  courses  in  elements 
of  law  or  jurisprudence  there  is  no  good  text  adapted  for  use  in 
college  classes.  There  are  those  who  question  the  advisability 


INSTRUCTION  IN  COLLEGES  AND  UNIVERSITIES    193 

of  attempting  to  teach  this  subject  to  college  students,  and  it 
certainly  is  open  to  question  whether  much  that  passes  as  juris- 
prudence is  not  either  beyond  the  comprehension  of  the  under- 
graduate or  made  up  of  material  which  more  properly  belongs 
to  philosophy  or  ethics.  The  course  in  elements  of  law  or  juris- 
prudence is  one  of  the  problems  of  the  college  department  of 
political  science.  Far  too  little  emphasis  is  given  in  courses  for 
undergraduates  to  the  fact  that  government  is  a  legal  mechanism, 
and  very  often  no  attempt  is  made  to  connect  up  the  study  of 
political  affairs  with  legal  foundations.  It  is  quite  clear  that 
some  work  should  be  given  by  way  of  an  introductory  study  to 
law.  What  should  be  the  content  of  this  course,  how  and  to 
whom  it  should  be  taught,  are  questions  which  are  far  from  any 
satisfactory  answer. 

Very  few  courses  are  given  in  the  small  colleges  which  are  not 
based  primarily  on  texts,  and  the  consensus  of  opinion  among 
instructors  is  that  this  is  the  best  method  of  conducting  classes. 
As  a  rule  the  course  in  political  science  consists  of  a  close  study 
of  one  or  two  texts  with  some  library  work  and  class  discussion 
upon  the  basis  of  reports  made  by  students.  In  a  few  institutions 
the  texts  are  of  high  school  grade,  but  for  the  most  part  they  are 
standard  college  works.  One  result  of  the  reliance  on  text-books 
is  inadequate  attention  to  local  government,  since  the  authors 
deal  very  briefly  with  this  field  and  the  average  instructor  has 
very  little  time  or  inclination  to  develop  a  course  without  a  text. 

5.  Methods  of  Instruction. 

Methods  of  instruction  in  the  universities  vary  considerably 
according  to  the  size  of  the  institution  and  the  number  in  the 
class.  In  the  preliminary  courses,  as  a  general  rule,  the  system 
of  informal  lectures  is  combined  with  reports  and  quizzes.  The 
case  book  plan  is  extensively  employed  in  the  courses  in  public 
and  business  law.  In  all  the  advanced  courses  the  students  are 
obliged  to  carry  on  independent  work  under  the  supervision  of 


194  THE  TEACHING  OF  GOVERNMENT 

the  instructor.  The  seminar  has  been  found  most  successful  in 
developing  a  keen  interest  among  seniors  and  graduate  students 
in  many  of  the  problems  of  politics. 

In  the  elementary  courses  with  large  classes  the  following 
methods  are  typical  of  replies  to  the  committee's  inquiry: 

Brown  University:  Lectures,  readings  assigned  and  papers. 

Columbia  University:  Lectures,  papers  and  readings. 

Grinnell  College:  Lecture  and  text-book  method  combined  with 
reports. 

New  York  University:  Informal  lectures,  recitations,  discussions 
and  papers. 

Princeton  University:  Lectures,  extensive  readings  and  reports; 
conferences  with  small  groups  of  students. 

University  of  California:  Lectures,  papers  and  readings. 

University  of  Nebraska:  Lectures,  recitations,  papers  and  sectional 
conferences. 

Williams  College:  Lectures,  oral  and  written  recitations,  class- 
room discussions,  readings  on  special  topics. 

Where  classes  are  small  and  the  work  offered  is  more  elemen- 
tary it  is  customary  to  rely  largely  on  text-books  and  recitations 
with  a  limited  amount  of  special  readings  and  occasional  class 
reports.  Frequently  the  number  of  class  hours  allotted  to  such 
subjects  as  American  government,  comparative  government, 
and  introductory  political  science  are  so  few  that  it  is  quite  im- 
possible to  do  justice  to  a  good  text-book,  let  alone  to  attempt 
extensive  readings.  One  of  the  imperative  needs  for  the  improve- 
ment of  instruction  in  these  subjects  is  to  increase  the  time  allot- 
ment so  that  more  thorough  and  intensive  work  can  be  done. 

A  large  number  of  institutions  are  offering  courses  in  current 
problems  and  political  issues.  As  a  part  of  these  courses  lectures 
are  frequently  given  by  men  prominent  in  public  life.  Cornell 
University  has  recently  established  such  a  course  with  the  prime 
purpose  of  training  for  citizenship.  The  lectures  are  given  by 
men  of  affairs  and  are  designed  to  create  a  vital  interest  in  the 
duties  and  responsibilities  of  citizens.  The  course  proved  to  be 


INSTRUCTION  IN  COLLEGES  AND  UNIVERSITIES    195 

such  a  success  that  it  is  to  be  continued  and  placed  on  a  perma- 
nent basis. 

6.  Types  of  Courses. 

Four  types  of  courses  are  comprised  within  the  range  of  de- 
partments of  political  science.  The  first  of  these  to  be  developed 
and  now  offered  in  most  institutions  giving  instruction  in  political 
science  is  one  of  a  descriptive  character  dealing  with  the  organi- 
zation and  operation  of  American  and  European  governments. 
In  some  of  these  courses  ancient  and  modern  governments  are 
considered  first  and  the  preliminary  work  is  made  the  basis  for 
a  study  of  the  American  system  of  government.  The  history 
of  modern  forms  of  government  and  their  present  organization, 
chiefly  from  the  constitutional  point  of  view,  is  the  chief  object 
of  such  courses.  Second,  there  is  a  type  of  course  which  first 
presents  the  theory  of  the  state  (Allgemeine  Staatslehre)  and 
deals  with  the  conception  of  the  state,  its  basis,  the  form  of  its 
constitution,  and  sovereignty.  In  these  courses  the  considera- 
tion of  theories  and  political  principles  is  followed  by  a  compara- 
tive study  of  the  departments  of  government,  executive,  legisla- 
tive, judicial,  and  by  an  analysis  of  the  ends  and  aims  of  the 
state.  The  philosophy  and  underlying  principles  of  the  state 
are  presented  as  well  as  some  notion  of  the  forms  of  organiza- 
tion. A  third  kind  of  course  is  one  which  is  primarily  confined 
to  a  study  of  functions  rather  than  organization.  Such  courses, 
although  involving  comparative  features,  are  more  often  frankly 
confined  to  a  study  of  one  system  of  government,  and  matters 
of  form  and  organization  of  public  authority  are  subordinated 
to  that  of  functional  activities. 

A  fourth  type  of  course  comprises  the  work  offered  in  consti- 
tutional law,  administrative  law,  international  law,  commercial 
law,  Roman  law,  elements  of  law  and  jurisprudence.  These 
courses  mark  the  dividing  line  where  the  technical  phases  of 
law  merge  into  the  realm  of  public  policy,  ethics  and  custom, 


196  THE  TEACHING  OF  GOVERNMENT 

and  thus  constitute  a  common  vicinage  in  which  the  departments 
of  law  and  political  science  are  equally  interested  and  involved. 
In  connection  with  these  courses  the  question  arises  whether 
they  should  not  be  offered  primarily  as  law  courses  to  which 
advanced  undergraduates  might  be  admitted  instead  of  being 
offered  under  departments  of  political  science  and  admitting 
law  students.  Each  arrangement  has  some  distinct  advantages 
in  its  favor,  but  there  is  no  indication  of  any  uniformity  in  prac- 
tice, with  the  result  that  the  relation  between  departments  of 
political  science  and  departments  of  law  is  one  of  the  difficult 
problems  of  university  instruction  in  government  and  law.  It 
seems  that  in  some  of  these  subjects  it  will  be  necessary  and  ad- 
visable to  offer  courses  both  in  the  law  school  and  in  the  depart- 
ment of  political  science  and  that  others  should  be  offered  in  only 
one  department  with  an  arrangement  for  admission  of  qualified 
students  from  the  other.  The  matter  deserves  careful  considera- 
tion and  involves  a  plan  of  adjustment  which  should  receive 
early  attention  by  the  Political  Science  Association  and  the 
Association  of  American  Law  Schools. 

7.  Suggestions  for  the  Improvement  of  Instruction. 

In  one  of  the  questionnaires  distributed  by  the  committee 
instructors  were  asked  to  give  suggestions  as  to  ways  and 
methods  by  which  instruction  in  government  might  be  improved. 
Among  the  suggestions  commonly  urged  were  the  following: 

1.  That  the  department  of  political  science  be  separated  from 
other  departments  of  instruction  and  not  treated  as  a  mere 
appendage  to  history  or  economics. 

2.  That  the  Political  Science  Review  be  made  more  definitely 
a  medium  of  information  to  keep  teachers  abreast  of  important 
changes  in  the  realm  of  politics. 

3.  That  a  full  year  be  given  to  the  study  of  American  govern- 
ment. 

4.  That  departments  establish  research  bureaus  and  aim  to 


INSTRUCTION  IN  COLLEGES  AND  UNIVERSITIES    197 

keep  in  touch  with  government  in  actual  operation  in  townships, 
cities,  counties,  state  and  nation,  and  that  students  be  trained 
to  study  definite  problems. 

5.  That  more  frequent  use  be  made  of  newspapers  and  peri- 
odicals for  illustrations  of  the  dynamics  of  government. 

6.  That  texts  be  prepared  which  give  more  emphasis  to  func- 
tions and  statistics  and  deal  more  fully  with  state  and  local  gov- 
ernment.   Good  outlines  should  also  be  prepared  with  sugges- 
tions for  gathering  and  using  concrete  material,  and  for  doing 
observational  and  practical  work. 

7.  That  laboratory  work  and  the  assignment  of  practical 
problems  for  student  reports  should  be  more  largely  used  by  all 
instructors  in  political  science. 

8.  That  better  provision  be  made  for  the  training  of  teachers 
in  this  subject. 

9.  That  much  could  be  gamed  by  standardizing  many  of  the 
courses  and  grading  them  as  elementary,  advanced  and  gradu- 
ate in  character.    The  Association  should  prepare  a  program  of 
study  and  text  writers  should  conform  to  this  program  instead 
of  allowing  the  scope  and  arrangement  of  courses  to  be  largely 
determined  by  the  most  popular  text  writers. 

10.  That  civics  in  secondary  schools  should  be  placed  on  a 
better  basis  and  broadened  so  as  to  include  economics  and  so- 
ciology. 

At  a  conference  arranged  by  Professor  Horack  and  held  at 
Iowa  City  in  July,  1914,  the  following  conclusions  were  adopted: 

i.  The  conference  agreed  that  there  ought  to  be  a  funda- 
mental introductory  course — a  course  relating  to  human  origins 
and  evolution  was  favored. 

•2.  It  was  likewise  the  opinion  of  the  conference  that  a  course 
in  history  as  history  is  ordinarily  taught  would  not  serve  as  an 
adequate  introduction  to  political  science. 

3.  The  conference  agreed  that  departments  of  political  science 
should  teach  American  constitutional  law  and  that  the  term 


ig8  THE  TEACHING  OF  GOVERNMENT 

constitutional  as  applied  to  courses  in  American  history  had 
better  be  dropped  altogether. 

4.  The  conference  was  agreed  that  courses  in  political  science 
should  be  open  to  Freshmen. 

5.  It  was  also  agreed  that  a  course  in  American  Government, 
if  made  the  basic  course,  should  be  illuminated  by  illustrations 
drawn  from  contemporary  politics  and  comparative  govern- 
ment. 

IV.  Recommendations  for  the  Improvement  of  College  In- 
struction. 

In  view  of  the  difficulties  involved  in  making  recommendations 
which  may  be  applied  to  the  great  variety  of  conditions  to  be 
met  in  the  many  colleges  of  the  United  States,  the  committee 
found  considerable  difficulty  in  carrying  out  the  second  object 
of  its  appointment — that  of  suggesting  means  for  enlarging 
and  improving  instruction.  It  is  of  course  quite  evident  that 
no  standard  plan  of  courses  and  no  uniform  method  of  instruc- 
tion can  be  devised  for  the  many  types  of  colleges  and  univer- 
sities. That  something  like  a  standard  type  of  course  has  been 
worked  out  for  certain  groups  of  universities  and  colleges  is, 
however,  plainly  evident.  The  committee  certainly  disclaims 
any  intention  to  prescribe  a  standard  plan  of  courses  in  political 
science.  A  few  recommendations,  however,  are  offered,  which 
are  intended  primarily  to  afford  guidance  to  the  smaller  colleges 
and  to  those  institutions  in  which  government  is  merely  begin- 
ning to  receive  adequate  attention. 

It  is  well  to  emphasize  at  this  point  that  the  committee  has 
aimed  in  all  of  its  conclusions  to  gather  and  formulate  the  con- 
sensus of  opinion  among  those  who  are  vitally  interested  in  the 
improvement  of  political  science  instruction.  Every  effort  has 
been  made  through  questionnaires,  correspondence  and  other 
available  avenues  of  information  to  gather  opinions  and  to 
present  the  mature  judgment  of  those  qualified  to  speak  from 


INSTRUCTION  IN  COLLEGES  AND  UNIVERSITIES    199 

experience.  No  pains  have  been  spared  to  eliminate  personal 
views  and  predilections  and  to  present  in  such  conclusions  as 
are  offered  the  clearly  formulated  opinion  of  representative 
groups  of  instructors. 

Definition  of  Political  Science. 

For  the  purpose  of  its  report  the  committee  considered  the 
following  courses  as  comprising,  in  the  main,  the  scope  of  politi- 
cal science: 

A.  Descriptive  and  historical. 

1.  American  government. 

a.  National. 

b.  State  and  local. 

c.  Municipal. 

2.  Comparative  government. 

3.  Party  government. 

4.  Colonial  government. 

5.  Diplomacy. 

B.  Theoretic. 

1.  General  political  science. 

2.  Political  theories  and  history  of  political  literature. 

C.  Legal. 

1.  Constitutional  law. 

2.  International  law. 

3.  Elements  of  law  and  jurisprudence. 

4.  Commercial  law. 

D.  Advanced  courses. 

1.  Constitutional  relations. 

2.  Legislation  and  legislative  procedure. 

3.  Public  administration  and  administrative  methods. 

4.  Foreign  relations. 

5.  Theory. 

6.  Law.1 

1  In  the  preparation  of  this  table  the  committee  is  specially  indebted  to 
Professors  Schaper  of  the  University  of  Minnesota  and  Freund  of  the  Uni- 
versity of  Chicago  for  suggestions. 


200  THE  TEACHING  OF  GOVERNMENT 

At  the  outset  of  its  investigations  the  committee  was  informed 
on  good  authority  that  there  is  no  such  thing  as  political  science, 
and  as  the  work  of  examining  college  catalogues  progressed  the 
truth  of  this  observation  became  painfully  apparent.  Many 
colleges  and  a  few  universities  seem  disposed  to  use  the  term  in 
designating  the  group  of  courses  offered  in  economics  and  so- 
ciology, with  little  or  no  attention  given  to  the  courses  outlined 
above.  In  other  instances  political  science  is  used  in  a  very 
comprehensive  sense,  covering  courses  offered  in  history,  eco- 
nomics, politics,  public  law  and  sociology.  With  the  exception 
of  a  tendency  toward  uniformity  in  the  courses  announced  by 
a  few  colleges  and  the  larger  universities  there  is  a  marked  lack 
of  agreement  as  to  the  meaning  of  the  term  political  science. 
An  illustration  of  this  is  shown  where  an  institution  with  courses 
in  political  science,  as  denned  by  the  committee,  offers  these 
courses  under  the  heading  public  law  and  administration  and 
uses  the  term  political  science  to  designate  work  given  in  eco- 
nomics and  sociology.  A  standard  and  acceptable  definition  of 
political  science  seems  difficult  to  formulate.  But  however  diffi- 
cult it  may  be  to  define  the  term  it  is  fundamental  at  the  out- 
set that  there  be  an  agreement  as  to  what  courses  are  compre- 
hended within  the  field.  A  more  definite  agreement  as  to  what 
constitutes  political  science,  and  a  more  aggressive  insistence  on 
the  necessity  of  distinguishing  these  courses  from  other  groups, 
seem  to  be  the  prerequisite  to  secure  recognition  for  the  subject 
as  worthy  of  a  place  in  the  colleges  as  a  distinct  department. 

i.  That  courses  in  political  science  be  separated  from  courses 
in  history,  economics  and  sociology. 

In  approximately  300  institutions,  the  following  results  were 
obtained  regarding  the  relation  of  political  science  to  other 
subjects: 

Separate  department  of  political  science 38 

Combined  with  history 89 

Combined  with  economics ..  .  22 


INSTRUCTION  IN  COLLEGES  AND  UNIVERSITIES    201 

Combined  with  sociology 4 

Combined  with  history  and  economics 48 

Combined  with  economics  and  sociology 45 

Combined  with  economics,  history  and  sociology 21 

Combined  with  philosophy 3 

Combined  with  economics,  history  and  philosophy 3 

Combined  with  economics,  history  and  English 4 

Combined  with  economics  and  English i 

Combined  with  Latin i 

History,  political  science,  and  director  of  athletics 2 

Combinations  such  as  the  following  were  made  in  some  of  the 
smaller  institutions,  the  department  including  one  or  more 
courses  in  political  science:  history,  civics,  physical  and  moral 
science;  English  Bible,  philosophy,  pedagogy,  sociology  and  evi- 
dences of  Christianity;  economics,  sociology,  international  law 
and  Bible;  exegesis,  history  and  civics;  political  science,  eco- 
nomics, philosophy  and  psychology;  education,  philosophy,  re- 
ligion and  social  science. 

It  is  apparent  from  this  table  that  very  few  instructors  in  po- 
litical science  give  their  entire  tune  and  attention  to  the  subject. 
Consequently  the  great  majority  of  teachers  are  obliged  to  de- 
vote the  major  portion  of  their  energies  to  another  subject  and 
to  grant  only  an  incidental  interest  and  emphasis  to  courses  in 
government.  Some  exceedingly  valuable  courses  are  offered 
under  this  plan  and  there  are  some  advantages  in  the  point  of 
view  that  comes  from  the  necessity  of  keeping  in  close  touch 
with  more  than  one  field.  But  recognizing  that  when  a  man 
offers  courses  in  history  and  economics  he  is  not  thereby  dis- 
qualified for  the  giving  of  political  science  instruction,  and  mak- 
ing due  allowance  for  the  advantage  that  comes  from  the  survey 
of  other  fields,  it  is  undoubtedly  true  that  political  science  in- 
struction will  not  be  placed  on  a  plane  to  be  compared  with  that 
of  other  departments  until  colleges  give  that  consideration  to 
the  field  which  will  demand  the  full  time  and  energy  of  one  man, 
at  least.  The  small  colleges  can  only  set  up  this  standard  as  a 


202  THE  TEACHING  OF  GOVERNMENT 

goal  toward  which  to  lay  plans.  But  an  increasing  number  of 
colleges  are  not  only  providing  for  courses  which  require  the 
time  of  one  instructor,  but,  as  in  the  case  of  history,  economics 
and  other  departments,  they  are  providing  additional  instructors 
to  take  care  of  the  increase  in  student  enrollment  and  to  offer 
courses  for  which  there  is  an  evident  need. 

Furthermore,  the  arrangement  to  combine  political  science 
with  other  departments  requires  that  an  instructor  who  has 
received  special  training  almost  entirely  in  another  field  must 
prepare  courses  along  a  line  in  which  he  has  had  no  particular 
preparation.  As  a  consequence  much  of  so-called  political  science 
is  either  political  history  or  the  economic  foundations  of  govern- 
ment. Both  of  these  subjects  are  important  and  it  is  right  that 
much  attention  be  given  to  them,  but  political  science  instruc- 
tion almost  invariably  suffers  when  offered  by  one  whose  primary 
interest  and  preparation  are  essentially  in  another  field.  The 
committee  does  not  wish  to  be  misunderstood  on  this  point. 
They  regard  it  as  eminently  desirable  and  necessary  that  there 
be  full  and  frank  cooperation  among  the  departments  of  history, 
economics,  sociology  and  political  science.  What  is  desired  in 
the  recommendation  is  more  especially  that  the  courses  in 
political  science  be  organized  as  a  distinct  group  constituting 
a  department,  and  that  an  effort  be  made  to  provide  that  they  be 
offered  by  an  instructor  whose  interest  and  training  specially 
qualify  him  for  work  in  this  field. 

It  is  a  pleasure  to  report  that  a  marked  tendency  in  this 
direction  is  noticeable  among  the  larger  colleges  and  universities, 
and  it  is  to  be  hoped  that  the  time  is  not  far  distant  when  polit- 
ical science  will  have  a  recognized  place  and  a  reputable  stand- 
ing alongside  of  older  subjects  in  the  college  curriculum. 

There  is  a  justifiable  revolt  against  the  seemingly  endless 
growth  of  departments  and  the  sometimes  unwarranted  tendency 
to  add  highly  technical  and  advanced  courses  in  a  department. 
But  if  there  are  any  good  reasons  for  not  according  an  independ- 


INSTRUCTION  IN  COLLEGES  AND  UNIVERSITIES    203 

ent  status  to  courses  in  government  and  law  these  reasons  have 
not  been  forthcoming.  That  those  whose  business  it  is  to  teach 
political  science  almost  invariably  favor  the  expansion  of  their 
departments  is  only  to  be  expected.  The  encouraging  thing  is 
that  men  of  affairs  in  business  and  government,  as  well  as  those 
in  other  avenues  of  life,  join  with  the  specialists  in  political 
science  in  urging  upon  administrative  authorities  the  necessity 
of  more  and  better  courses  of  instruction  in  government. 

Fortunately  the  time  has  passed  when  the  devotees  of  this 
branch  of  learning  must  needs  beg  for  scant  courtesies  at  the 
hands  of  those  who  guard  the  avenues  of  intellectual  advance. 
The  liberalizing  culture  of  the  study  of  political  literature  and 
public  affairs,  as  well  as  the  service  rendered  by  departments  of 
government,  have  not  only  restored  the  science  of  politics  to 
its  former  place  but  have  also  called  forth  new  avenues  of  growth, 
new  fields  of  endeavor.  A  prestige  which  will  not  long  be  un- 
noticed in  any  school  of  learning  which  values  its  function  as  an 
educative  force  in  a  democracy  bids  fair  to  place  the  study  of 
government  on  a  firm  footing  as  an  indispensable  feature  of 
every  college  curriculum. 

2.  That  a  full  year's  course  in  American  government  be  given 
as  the  basic  course  for  undergraduates  and  that  whenever  practicable 
some  illustrative  material  and  suggestive  comparisons  with  foreign 
governments  be  presented. 

A  summary  of  attendance  in  courses  in  150  institutions  shows 
that  American  government  is  far  in  the  lead  as  a  basis  for  ad- 
vanced work  in  the  department.  Comparative  government, 
introductory  courses  in  political  science  and  international  law 
are  the  other  subjects  which  are  used  to  introduce  students  to 
subsequent  work.  But  the  three  of  these  as  offered  in  intro- 
ductory courses  are  not  selected  in  as  many  institutions  as 
American  government  and  are  given  to  a  considerably  smaller 
number  of  students.  It  may  be  taken  therefore  as  rather  clearly 
determined  that  some  form  of  instruction  in  American  govern- 


204  THE  TEACHING  OF  GOVERNMENT 

ment  shall  be  the  basic  course.  This  course  is  usually  elective 
and  is  open  to  students  of  sophomore  grade. 

A  matter  which  is  receiving  some  attention  is  whether  this  or 
another  course  in  government  ought  to  be  open  to  freshmen. 
While  a  few  schools  have  admitted  freshmen  to  the  course  and 
while  there  are  some  strong  reasons  in  favor  of  this  practice  the 
prevailing  sentiment  for  the  present,  at  least,  favors  the  require- 
ment of  a  year's  work  in  college  as  a  prerequisite. 

The  present  standard  of  instruction  could  of  course  be  changed 
so  as  to  adapt  the  material  and  methods  to  meet  the  needs  of 
freshmen.  But  in  view  of  the  fact  that  most  of  the  large  high 
schools  are  now  giving  a  half  year  or  a  year  to  this  subject  on 
somewhat  the  same  plan  as  would  be  necessary  in  a  first  year 
college  course,  it  seems  better  from  the  standpoint  of  the  student 
as  well  as  of  the  department  to  defer  the  introductory  course 
until  the  second  collegiate  year.  In  states  where  but  few  stu- 
dents have  an  opportunity  to  pursue  the  study  of  civics  in 
high  schools  or  where  the  instruction  is  of  the  formal  or  perfunc- 
tory kind  there  is  more  cogency  to  the  argument  in  favor  of  a 
freshman  course. 

When  instruction  in  government  begins  in  the  sophomore 
year  the  question  arises  whether  any  course  shall  be  made  a 
prerequisite  for  the  election  of  the  subject  or  whether  a  certain 
number  of  credits  alone  shall  be  sufficient.  The  general  rule  does 
not  favor  any  prerequisite.  Some  institutions,  however,  require 
the  selection  of  a  course  in  history,  whereas  others  strongly  advise 
the  taking  of  a  preliminary  course  in  this  subject.  A  few  colleges 
are  offering  to  freshmen  with  a  fair  degree  of  success  an  intro- 
ductory course  in  the  social  sciences — a  kind  of  gateway  course 
to  economics,  sociology  and  political  science.  No  satisfactory 
text  or  handbook  for  this  type  of  course  has  yet  been  prepared. 
In  fact  it  is  doubtful  whether  such  a  text  is  within  the  limits 
of  practicability  on  account  of  the  diversity  of  fields  and  the 
difficulty  of  condensing  the  underlying  principles  of  any  one  of 


INSTRUCTION  IN  COLLEGES  AND  UNIVERSITIES    205 

the  above  subjects.  For  the  present  such  a  course  depends  too 
much  upon  the  individual  predilections  of  the  instructor  and  is 
likely  to  comprehend  an  effervescence  of  principles  which  fails 
to  meet  the  approval  of  any  of  the  three  departments  concerned. 

The  most  noteworthy  objection  to  the  present  arrangement 
and  one  that  has  influential  advocates  is  that  only  a  small  per- 
centage of  the  student  body  can  elect  this  course  under  the 
conditions  which  prevail  in  the  selection  of  subjects,  and  that 
the  majority  of  those  who  do  choose  the  course  never  have  an 
opportunity  to  continue  the  study  of  government.  Consequently 
it  follows  that  of  the  small  percentage  of  those  who  strive  to 
gain  some  knowledge  of  political  affairs  only  a  minor  portion 
ever  go  far  enough  to  get  any  knowledge  of  foreign  governments. 
Hence  the  present  system  is  designed  to  foster  an  inordinate 
provincialism  which  has  been  one  of  the  banes  of  our  national 
life.  If  the  citizen-to-be  has  an  opportunity  to  take  but  one 
year's  work  in  government  it  is  thought  by  many  that  this  one 
course  should  provide  instruction  in  comparative  government 
to  supply  a  broader  basis  of  information  than  would  the  study 
of  American  government  alone.  As  the  study  of  government 
is  introduced  in  the  grades  and  a  thorough  and  effective  course 
is  offered  in  the  high  school  the  committee  is  inclined  to  the  opin- 
ion that  it  will  become  increasingly  practicable  to  introduce  the 
comparative  method  in  introductory  courses. 

The  information  available  to  the  committee  sheds  very  little 
light  on  the  sequence  of  courses  in  different  institutions.  In 
fact,  it  is  doubtful  whether  anything  like  a  regular  sequence  of 
courses  is  followed  in  directing  the  election  of  subjects  in  the 
department.  As  a  rule  all  of  the  courses  are  elective  and  fre- 
quently are  open  only  to  juniors  and  seniors.  In  a  few  instances 
one  course  is  prescribed  and  usually  one  of  the  courses  is  made  a 
prerequisite  to  the  election  of  subsequent  work.  American  gov- 
ernment, general  political  science,  and  comparative  government 
are  the  courses  which  are  usually  prescribed  or  are  required  as 


206  THE  TEACHING  OF  GOVERNMENT 

prerequisite  for  the  election  of  advanced  work.  It  is  believed  in 
some  quarters  that  the  basic  course  should  be  in  the  field  of  gen- 
eral political  science;  i.  e.,  a  study  of  Staatslehre,  in  others  the 
comparative  study  of  European  systems,  and  in  others  that  the 
introduction  to  political  science  should  come  through  careful 
analysis  of  the  American  system. 

The  committee,  however,  recommends  that  American  govern- 
ment be  taken  as  the  basis  for  the  introductory  course  because  it 
is  convinced  that  there  is  an  imperative  need  for  a  more  thorough 
study  of  American  institutions,  because  the  opportunity  for 
this  study  is  not  now  offered  in  any  but  a  few  of  the  best  second- 
ary schools,  and  because  it  is  exceedingly  important  that  the 
attention  of  an  undergraduate  be  directed  early  in  his  course 
to  a  vital  personal  interest  in  his  own  government,  national, 
state,  and  local.  Instruction  in  political  science  is  rarely  given 
until  the  second  or  third  year  of  the  college  work,  and  thus 
unless  American  government  is  selected  for  the  first  course  only 
a  small  percentage  of  students  receive  encouragement  and 
direction  in  the  study  of  political  affairs  with  which  they  will 
constantly  be  expected  to  deal  in  their  ordinary  relations  as 
citizens.  But  the  committee  believes  that  this  study  of  Ameri- 
can government  can  be  distinctly  vitalized  by  the  introduction 
of  such  comparisons  with  European  practices  and  forms  as  will 
strengthen  the  force  of  criticisms  of  our  present  weaknesses,  and 
will  supply  the  student  with  a  broader  basis  of  philosophical 
conclusions  as  to  constitutional  development  and  administrative 
practices. 

The  committee  is  of  the  opinion  that,  despite  the  very  marked 
increase  of  courses  in  American  government  within  the  past 
few  years,  one  of  the  immediate  needs  is  the  further  extension 
and  enlargement  of  these  courses.  In  only  a  few  institutions  is 
enough  time  given  to  the  subject  to  permit  anything  more  than 
the  most  cursory  survey  of  the  various  features  of  the  govern- 
ment, and  almost  invariably  state  and  local  government  suffer 


INSTRUCTION  IN  COLLEGES  AND  UNIVERSITIES    207 

in  the  cutting  process  which  is  necessary.  About  seventy  insti- 
tutions only  give  courses  in  which  state  and  local  government 
are  the  basis  of  special  study.  In  order  that  state  and  local 
government  shall  be  given  more  consideration,  and  in  order  that 
judicial  procedure  and  administrative  methods  shall  receive 
more  than  passing  notice,  it  is  absolutely  necessary  that  the 
time  allotted  to  American  government  be  increased.  Nothing 
short  of  a  full  year  of  at  least  three  hours  a  week  gives  the  neces- 
sary time  and  opportunity  to  do  anything  like  full  justice  to 
the  national,  state  and  local  units. 

There  is  a  great  diversity  of  opinion  and  practice  with  respect 
to  the  elementary  courses  now  offered.  In  order  to  show  the 
variety  of  conditions  which  prevails  a  brief  statement  as  to  the 
content  and  method  pursued  in  the  beginning  course  in  some 
representative  colleges  and  universities  is  given. 

AMHERST  COLLEGE 

The  elementary  course  in  political  science  in  Amherst  College  is  a 
course  in  American  government  running  throughout  the  year,  36 
weeks,  three  hours  each  week.  As  text-books  we  use  Beard's  "  Amer- 
ican Government  and  Politics,"  and  Young's  "  The  New  American 
Government  and  Its  Work,"  together  with  extensive  collateral  read- 
ing, sources,  cases,  etc.  We  give  this  course  as  the  first  course  in  the 
department  because  we  consider  it  the  most  valuable  for  those  men 
who  take  no  further  courses  in  political  science,  and  because  a 
thorough  knowledge  of  our  own  governmental  system  serves  as  a 
good  basis  for  a  comparative  study  of  governments  in  other  states  or 
for  an  intensive  study  of  a  more  specialized  field  in  government.  The 
chief  difficulty  that  confronts  us  is  the  need  for  a  knowledge  of  the 
elements  of  political  theory  in  order  to  discuss  some  phases  of  the 
American  federal  system,  constitutional  law,  and  court  decisions. 
From  this  point  of  view  a  general  course  in  political  science  is  useful. 
We  try  to  remedy  this  by  giving  in  the  freshman  year  a  general 
course  introductory  to  history,  political  science,  economics,  and 
ethics.  In  this  course  the  nature  of  the  social  sciences,  their  re- 
lations, their  fundamental  concepts  and  problems  are  pointed  out.1 

1  Furnished  by  R.  G,  Gettell. 


208  THE  TEACHING  OF  GOVERNMENT 

DARTMOUTH  COLLEGE 

The  elementary  course  in  political  science  at  Dartmouth  College  is 
organized  primarily  for  training  in  intelligent  and  effective  citizenship. 
The  course  covers  a  period  of  one  year  and  is  open  to  seniors  and 
juniors,  and  to  sophomores  who  have  completed  in  college  one  year's 
work  of  history. 

The  work  of  the  course  includes  a  study  of  the  historical  origins  of 
political  institutions;  a  brief  study  of  English  political  institutions; 
and  a  detailed  study  of  American  government,  in  its  constitutional, 
administrative  and  political  aspects.  To  the  historical  study  of 
political  institutions  the  first  six  weeks  of  the  year  is  devoted,  this 
time  being  divided  about  equally  between  the  abstract  study  of 
political  principles  and  the  concrete  study  of  English  government. 
In  this  part  of  the  course,  Leacock's  "  Elements  of  Political  Science  " 
is  used  and  Lowell's  "  Government  of  England." 

The  remainder  of  the  time  of  the  first  semester  is  assigned  to  the 
study  of  the  American  federal  government.  The  text-book  used  is 
Beard's  "  American  Government  and  Politics  "  with  outside  readings, 
in  Beard's  "  Readings  in  American  Government  and  Politics  "  and 
in  Young's  "  The  New  American  Government  and  Its  Work."  As  in- 
dicated by  the  text-books,  attention  is  given  to  actual  administrative 
problems  as  well  as  to  constitutional  questions. 

The  second  semester  of  the  year's  work  embraces  a  study  of  state 
government  with  detailed  accounts  of  legislative  and  administrative 
methods  in  different  states;  a  survey  of  the  history  of  political  parties 
and  an  examination  into  the  problems  created  by  such  organizations; 
a  discussion  of  citizenship  and  a  study  of  methods  for  making  public 
opinion  effective  in  a  republican  government. 

Such  a  course,  it  is  believed,  gives  the  student  something  of  an 
appreciation  of  social  institutions  as  a  background  for  constructive 
thinking  upon  present  political  issues.  Of  no  slight  importance  in 
the  success  of  the  course  is  the  fact  that  the  method  of  treatment 
tends  to  the  development  of  a  steadily  increasing  interest  on  the  part 
of  the  student,  throughout  the  year.1 

GRINNELL  COLLEGE 

The  basic  course  in  political  science  at  Grinnell  College  bears  the 
name  "Comparative  Free  Government."    This  is  a  three-hour  course 
throughout  the  year.    It  is  designed  not  only  to  give  information  con- 
1  Furnished  by  F.  A.  Updyke. 


INSTRUCTION  IN  COLLEGES  AND  UNIVERSITIES    209 

cerning  certain  governments,  but  also  to  acquaint  the  student  with 
the  institutions  and  processes  by  which  democracy  in  government  is 
being  attained  in  leading  states. 

The  first  semester  is  devoted  to  a  rather  detailed  study  of  the  gov- 
ernment of  the  United  States,  national  and  state.  The  point  of 
view  is  emphatically  that  of  the  present,  the  actual  working  of  the 
government,  but  the  attempt  is  made  to  have  the  student  see  clearly 
what  the  formal  constitutional  arrangement  calls  for;  what  the 
founders  of  the  government  had  hi  mind;  in  what  ways  the  govern- 
ment in  operation  differs  from  what  was  intended;  and  what  present 
tendencies  suggest  for  the  future.  Emphasis  is  placed  upon  funda- 
mental principles  and  adjustments,  and  a  broad  foundation  laid  for 
comparison  with  other  governments. 

The  second  semester  is  given  to  a  study  of  the  governments  of 
England,  France,  Germany,  Switzerland,  and  selected  states  in  South 
America,  in  the  order  named.  In  this  part  of  the  course  the  compara- 
tive method  is  very  prominent,  the  government  of  England  being  con- 
sidered in  greatest  detail. 

The  course  begins  with  the  United  States,  because  the  study  of 
American  institutions  and  practices  affords  to  the  American  student 
a  natural  approach  to  the  study  of  politics.  Moreover,  the  United 
States  is  the  leading  example  of  the  presidential  type  of  free  govern- 
ment and  was  a  pioneer  among  the  nations,  in  setting  up  a  govern- 
ment consciously  based  on  popular  control.  England  is  studied  next, 
because  of  the  close  connection  between  English  and  American  institu- 
tions and  the  many  important  contrasts  to  be  found,  and  because 
England  is  the  originator  and  chief  example  of  cabinet  government. 
France  comes  third,  because  of  her  illuminating  experiences  as  a 
republic,  with  cabinet  government,  under  the  Roman  legal  system, 
and  because  of  her  highly  centralized  democracy  and  the  consequent 
contrasts  to  be  made  with  both  England  and  the  United  States. 
Germany  is  considered  next,  because  she  affords  an  example  of  a  great 
state  changing  from  autocratic  to  popular  government,  and  because 
her  federal  system  may  be  compared  so  profitably  with  that  of  Switzer- 
land and  that  of  the  United  States.  Switzerland  is  studied,  because 
she  is  the  most  conspicuous  example  of  triumphant,  assured  democ- 
racy, and  has  developed  a  system  that  is  distinctly  her  own, — one  that 
is  neither  presidential  nor  cabinet  in  character.  Argentina  and  Chile 
are  studied,  because  of  the  light  they  throw  upon  South  American 
problems  and  upon  the  utilization  of  political  institutions  and  forms 
designed  for  raolically  different  peoples  and  conditions. 


210  THE  TEACHING  OF  GOVERNMENT 

From  the  work  of  this  course,  the  student  attains  several  important 
results.  He  acquires  information  not  only  of  the  institutions  of  his 
own  country,  but  of  a  number  of  leading  free  states;  he  develops  an 
interest  in  international  relations  and  problems;  his  sympathies  and 
political  outlook  are  broadened;  his  national  prejudices  are  weakened; 
he  gains  some  understanding  of  politics  as  a  science;  and  he  develops 
the  inclination  and,  in  part,  the  ability  to  measure  the  political  stand- 
ards and  conduct  of  his  own  government  by  those  of  other  statfc  l 

UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA 
BEGINNING  COURSE  IN  COMPARATIVE  GOVERNMENT 

The  beginning  course  in  political  science  in  the  University  of 
California  is  a  course  in  comparative  government.  The  course  is 
given  for  three  hours  a  week,  two  hours  being  devoted  to  lectures 
and  one  hour  to  quiz  sections,  under  the  direction  of  teaching  fellows 
in  the  department.  At  the  present  time  there  are  450  students  en- 
rolled in  the  course  and  there  are  15  quiz  sections.  These  sections 
are  now  too  large  and  their  number  must  be  increased  another  year. 
A  definite  reading  assignment  is  given  each  week,  and  upon  this 
assignment  a  twenty-minute  paper  is  set  in  each  quiz  section. 

The  tune  of  the  course  is  divided  as  follows: 

FIRST  SEMESTER. 

Government  of  England.  7  weeks.  Req.  reading — selections  from 
Lowell,  Government  of  England  (in  1915- 
1916  a  total  of  462  pages  was  assigned). 

Government  of  France.  4  weeks.  Req.  reading — Constitution  of 
1875.  Ogg,  Governments  of  Europe 
(Chapters  on  France).  Selections  from 
Lowell,  Government  and  Parties  in  Con- 
tinental Europe  and  from  other  books  to  a 
total  of  150  pages. 

Government  of  Italy.  2  weeks.  Req.  reading — Italian  constitu- 
tion. Ogg,  Governments  of  Europe 
(pages  on  Italy)  and  100  pages  to  be 
selected  from  a  list  of  books  including 
Lowell,  Government  and  Parties  of  Con- 
tinental Europe,  etc. 

1  Furnished  by  J.  W.  Gannaway. 


INSTRUCTION  IN  COLLEGES  AND  UNIVERSITIES    211 

Government  of  Switzer-      2  weeks.    Req.  reading — Constitution  of 
land.  Switzerland.     Ogg,  Governments  of  Eu- 

rope. 

SECOND  SEMESTER. 

Government  of  Germany.  5  weeks.  Req.  reading — Kriiger,  Govern- 
ment and  Politics  of  the  German  Empire. 
Constitution  of  German  Empire.  Ogg, 
Governments  of  Europe — (portion  relat- 
ing to  Prussia). 

Government  of  Austria.  2  weeks.  Req.  reading — Constitutional 
Law  of  Austria  and  Hungary.  Ogg,  Gov- 
ernments of  Europe. 

Government  of  the  United  8  weeks.    Req.  reading — Selections  from 
States.  Bryce,  American  Commonwealth.    Reed, 

T.  H.,  Government  for  the  People. 

Owing  to  peculiar  conditions  in  this  university,  we  permit  students 
to  begin  this  course  in  either  semester.  The  great  majority,  however, 
begin  in  the  Fall,  which  is  by  far  the  best  plan. 

In  explanation  of  the  above  outline,  it  should  be  said  that  we  have 
put  American  government  at  the  end  of  the  Spring  semester  because 
the  students  almost  without  exception  come  to  college  after  just 
completing  a  course  in  American  government  in  their  high  school 
senior  year.  We  have  felt  it  necessary  to  give  them  a  fresh  point 
of  view.  Our  treatment  of  American  government  is  not  systematic, 
but  is  simply  a  critical  treatment  of  some  of  our  institutions  in  the 
light  of  what  the  class  has  been  able  to  learn  from  the  experience 
with  other  countries.  We  give  in  the  upper  division  a  course  in  Ameri- 
can institutions  for  those  who  desire  a  more  intensive  knowledge  of 
American  government,  especially  those  who  desire  to  teach  the  sub- 
ject in  high  school.1 

COLUMBIA  UNIVERSITY 

Our  elementary  course  is  limited  to  American  government.  It  was 
found  on  experience  that  students  coming  up  from  secondary  schools 
have  very  crude  notions  about  our  own  government  and  that  there 
would  be  danger  of  superficiality  if  we  attempted  too  much  in  the 
first  year.  Moreover,  we  have  a  course  in  comparative  government 
which  students  may  take  after  they  have  completed  the  elementary 
course.2 

1  Furnished  by  Thomas  B.  Reed.          2  Furnished  by  Charles  A.  Beard. 


212  THE  TEACHING  OF  GOVERNMENT 

HARVARD  UNIVERSITY 

Our  chief  elementary  course,  Government  i,  is  an  elective,  open  to 
freshmen  and  sophomores.  About  five  hundred  students  are  enrolled. 
There  are  two  lectures  per  week  throughout  the  academic  year,  or 
about  sixty-six  lectures  in  all.  Once  each  week  the  class  meets  in 
sections,  of  about  twenty  students  per  section,  for  a  short  paper  and 
discussion  both  based  on  the  assigned  reading  of  the  week.  There  are 
twenty-four  of  these  sections,  handled  by  six  assistants,  each  assistant 
having  four  sections.  That  is,  in  brief,  the  machinery  of  the  course. 

Now  as  for  the  plan.  The  course  presents  a  general  survey  of 
present-day  government,  dealing  chiefly  (in  fact,  almost  entirely)  with 
the  governments  of  England,  France,  Germany,  Italy,  and  the  United 
States.  The  first  half-year  is  devoted  to  European  government,  the 
second  half  entirely  to  American  government.  I  have  adopted  this 
arrangement  for  the  following  reasons.  First,  a  study  of  the  European 
government  seems  necessary  to  give  a  proper  background  for  intelli- 
gent work  on  the  government  of  the  United  States.  Second,  if  the 
students  are  to  have  good  disciplinary  training,  it  is  desirable  that 
they  should  begin  with  a  study  of  institutions  which  they  know  rela- 
tively little  about,  rather  than  with  those  which  are  already  somewhat 
known  to  them.  Experience  has  taught  me  that  the  freshman  or 
sophomore  whose  first  book  on  government  is  one  relating  to  his  own 
country  is  likely  to  develop  superficial  habits  of  reading  and  to  take 
a  great  deal  for  granted. 

On  an  average  about  sixty  to  seventy  pages  of  reading  are  assigned 
each  week,  in  Lowell's  "  Government  of  England,"  and  Lowell's 
"  Governments  and  Parties  "  during  the  first  half-year;  in  "  The  Fed- 
eralist" and  Bryce's  "  American  Commonwealth  "  during  the  second 
half-year. 

Students  are  required  to  have  passed  this  course  before  they  can 
be  admitted  to  any  of  the  other  courses  offered  by  the  University  in 
the  Department  of  Government.1 

UNIVERSITY  OF  ILLINOIS 

(i)  The  elementary  courses  are, 

(a)  American  National  Government,  offered  the  first  semester. 

(b)  American  State  and  Local  Government,  offered  the  second 
semester. 

1  Furnished  by  W.  B.  Munro. 


INSTRUCTION  IN  COLLEGES  AND  UNIVERSITIES    213 

The  content  of  these  courses  is  indicated  by  the  two  principal  works 
used  in  them,  namely:  Bryce,  "The  American  Commonwealth," 
a  large  part  of  Volume  i  and  selected  portions  of  Volume  2 ;  and  Beard, 
"American  Government  and  Politics."  These  two  works  are  supple- 
mented by  collateral  readings  and  by  lectures  given  by  members  of 
-the  department.  Students  may  enroll  in  either  course  without  taking 
the  other.  Except  as  it  is  given  in  lecture  and  weekly  quiz  work, 
the  matter  of  definition,  terminology,  and  the  introduction  of  com- 
parative material  is  not  emphasized. 

(2)  The  reasons  why  these  courses  have  been  made  our  elementary 
courses  are  as  follows: 

(a)  This  is  a  state  university,  and  a  large  proportion  of  our  students, 
being  enrolled  in  other  colleges  than  that  of  liberal  arts  and  sciences, 
have  time  to  take  but  one  or  two  courses  in  political  science.    We  feel, 
therefore,  that  such  courses  as  they  are  able  to  take  ought  to  bear 
more  or  less  directly  upon  American  government. 

(b)  American  government  constitutes  a  part  of  the  required  work 
in  the  College  of  Commerce,  and  should,  therefore,  be  an  open  course 
without  many  prerequisites. 

(c)  No  freshmen  are  allowed  to  enter  these  courses.    We  get  only 
sophomores  and  upper-class  men  in  them.    For  this  reason  we  have 
a  somewhat  more  mature  group  of  students  than  we  would  get  if 
we  made  these  elementary  courses  open  to  first-year  men.    For  this 
reason,  too,  we  have  felt  justified  in  giving  a  rather  comprehensive 
survey  of  American  government  without  requiring  a  course  in  the 
elements  of  political  science. 

(d)  There  is  a  feeling  in  the  department  that  a  course  in  actual  gov- 
ernment is  preferable  for  a  beginning  course  to  one  which  deals  more 
or  less  with  political  theory  and  government  in  the  abstract.1 

UNIVERSITY  OF  IOWA 

American  government,  a  freshman  elective  of  four  hours  per  week 
throughout  the  academic  year,  has  been  the  elementary  course  in 
political  science  at  the  State  University  of  Iowa  since  1903  when  the 
course  was  first  outlined  and  presented  by  Professor  F.  E.  Horack. 

Three  divisions  of  this  course  are  now  (1915-1916)  being  given  in 
which  112  students  are  registered.  At  present  Beard's  "  American 
Government  and  Politics  "  is  used  as  a  text,  supplemented  by  library 
readings.  The  lecture  method  is  very  little  employed  in  this  course ; 

1  Furnished  by  R.  N.  Story. 


214  THE  TEACHING  OF  GOVERNMENT 

instead,  oral  quizzes,  in  which  discussion  and  debate  are  encouraged, 
and  written  tests  every  other  week  constitute  the  method  of  in- 
struction. 

An  important  phase  of  the  work  in  American  government  consists 
of  the  preparation  of  weekly  papers  on  subjects  germane  to  the  ma- 
terial under  consideration.  This  has  been  found  to  be  an  effective 
method  of  extending  the  reading  of  students  and  of  acquainting  them 
more  intimately  with  the  problems  of  American  government.  The 
following  topics  illustrate  the  nature  of  the  subject-matter  of  these 
papers: 

1.  Should  the  President's  veto  power  be  extended? 

2.  Is  a  single  six-year  presidential  term  advisable? 

3.  Should  debate  in  the  Senate  be  limited? 

4.  Compare  the  power  of  Speaker  Cannon  with  that  of  Speaker 
Clark. 

5.  Should  political  affiliations  be  considered  in  making  appoint- 
ments to  the  Supreme  Court  of  the  United  States? 

On  Monday  or  Tuesday  of  each  week  the  student  must  submit, 
at  a  designated  hour,  an  outline  of  the  paper  assigned  together  with  a 
list  of  at  least  five  different  references  which  he  has  consulted  and  pro- 
poses to  use  in  writing  his  paper.  On  the  following  Thursday  the 
papers  are  handed  in  (delinquent  papers  are  reduced  in  credit). 
These  are  corrected  and  returned  to  the  student  when  he  appears  the 
following  week  with  the  outline  of  his  next  paper.  Papers  are  cor- 
rected not  only  as  to  the  accuracy  of  the  facts  stated,  but  also  as  to  the 
method  of  presentation,  English,  and  orthography,  special  emphasis 
being  laid  upon  the  scientific  use  of  foot-note  references.1 

UNIVERSITY  OF  MICHIGAN 

At  present  the  elementary  course  in  American  government  given 
at  the  University  of  Michigan  proceeds  continuously  during  both 
semesters,  three  hours  per  week,  two  hours  being  given  to  lectures. 
The  additional  hour,  nominally  for  quiz  purposes,  is  made  use  of  for 
informal  discussion  as  well  as  for  recitation.  As  there  are  over  two 
hundred  electing  this  course  at  the  present  time  the  group  is  divided 
into  eight  quiz  sections.  I  am  not  sure  that  this  is  an  ideal  arrange- 
ment, but  it  is  rendered  necessary  by  the  size  of  classes  here  in  ele- 
mentary courses,  and  the  relatively  small  number  of  men  to  handle 
the  sections.  The  first  half  of  the  first  semester  is  given  to  a  consider- 

1  Furnished  by  B.  F.  Shambaugh. 


INSTRUCTION  IN  COLLEGES  AND  UNIVERSITIES    215 

ation  of  the  elements  of  government,  using  Leacock's  "  Elements  of 
Political  Science  "as  a  text,  with  collateral  readings  in  Jenk's  "  History 
of  Politics,"  Sir  Henry  Maine's  "Ancient  Law,"  and  other  works  that 
give  a  certain  historical  as  well  as  comparative  basis  for  the  study  of 
government.  The  lectures  attempt  to  supplement  Leacock.  The 
second  half  of  the  first  semester  is  given  to  a  consideration  of  Federal 
government,  using  Beard's  "American  Government  and  Politics"  and 
his  readings  as  text  and  collateral  reading.  In  order  to  make  the  work 
continuous,  the  treatment  of  federal  government  is  carried  through 
into  the  second  semester,  following  which  state  governments  are 
taken  up  and  the  second  half  of  the  second  semester  is  given  over 
to  party  organization.  In  this  course  it  might  seem  that  too  much 
stress  is  laid  upon  the  federal  government,  but  this  objection  is  met, 
I  think,  by  the  fact  that  no  other  course  considers  American  federal 
government  as  a  whole,  and  additional  courses  are  open  to  those  who 
have  had  courses  i  and  2,  in  state  government  and  administration 
(2  hours  per  week,  first  semester),  in  local  government  (3  hours  per 
week,  first  semester)  and  in  municipal  government  (3  hours  per  week, 
both  semesters). 

If  it  were  not  difficult  to  coordinate  a  four  hour  course  with  the 
general  scheme  of  the  undergraduate  curriculum,  I  should  enlarge 
the  course  to  four  hours  per  week,  both  semesters,  retaining  the  two 
formal  lectures,  and  using  the  additional  hour  for  further  informal 
discussion  in  small  groups.  Could  these  groups  be  limited  to  twelve 
or  fifteen,  I  think  we  might  have  a  satisfactory  organization.  In 
order  to  obtain  as  much  informal  discussion  in  the  smaller  groups  as 
possible,  a  ten-minute  written  exercise  is  set  for  each  of  the  groups 
each  week.  This  usually  directs  attention  to  some  phase  of  the  as- 
signed readings.  I  try  to  make  the  lectures  suggestive  rather  than 
encyclopedic,  depending  upon  the  readings  to  furnish  a  basis  of  com- 
mon facts.1 

UNIVERSITY  OF  MISSOURI 

American  Government. 

This  course  is  a  prerequisite  for  all  other  work  in  the  department  of 
political  science,  except  a  brief  two-hour,  one-semester  course  in  con- 
temporary international  politics.  It  is  given  as  a  five-hour,  one- 
semester  course,  and  is  based  on  Beard's  "  American  Government 
and  Politics  "  as  a  text.  The  instructor  lectures  to  the  class  four 
times  a  week,  and  on  the  fifth  day  the  class  is  broken  up  into  sections  of 

1  Furnished  by  J.  S.  Reeves. 


2i6  THE  TEACHING  OF  GOVERNMENT 

about  twenty  students  each  and  a  quiz  is  conducted  upon  the  reading 
and  lectures.  Approximately  half  of  the  time  of  the  course  is  devoted 
to  federal  government,  and  half  to  state  and  local  government.  The 
three  points  of  view:  structure,  function,  and  growth  or  evolution  are 
kept  constantly  in  view.  Little  attention  is  paid  to  political  theory, 
it  being  the  belief  of  the  department  that  such  studies,  which  are  still 
in  a  highly  controversial  state,  should  be  reserved  to  the  period 
when  the  student  has  acquired  from  the  concrete  study  of  his  own 
and  foreign  governments  the  data  upon  which  alone  a  satisfactory 
theory  of  the  state  can  be  constructed. 

One  of  the  most  valuable  parts  of  the  work  of  this  course  is  the 
essay  on  some  special  topic  which  each  student  is  required  to  write. 
The  assistants  in  the  course  give  considerable  time  and  thought  to 
the  guidance  of  students  in  the  preparation  of  these  essays.  It  is 
insisted  upon  that  every  essay  shall  be  accompanied  by  a  topical 
outline,  a  bibliography,  and  appropriate  foot-note  references  to  ma- 
terial used.  The  topics  assigned  are  of  a  kind  requiring  the  use  of 
documentary  or  other  source  material,  and  frequently  involve  origi- 
nal investigation  by  means  of  visits  to  or  correspondence  with  public 
officials.  Two  conferences  are  held  by  the  assistants  with  each  in- 
dividual student  during  the  preparation  of  his  essay.1 

UNIVERSITY  OF  WISCONSIN 

The  elementary  course  in  political  science  at  the  University  of 
Wisconsin  is  "American  Government  and  Politics."  The  course 
runs  four  hours  a  week  for  one  semester  of  eighteen  weeks.  There 
are  two  lectures  each  week  and  two  quiz  sections,  the  class  being 
divided  into  small  groups  of  from  fifteen  to  eighteen  members  each  for 
the  oral  quiz  work.  Every  three  weeks  a  rigid  written  quiz  is  given 
in  place  of  one  of  the  oral  quizzes  of  that  week. 

The  first  two  weeks  are  devoted  to  the  origin  and  development  of 
government.  The  next  seven  weeks  are  given  to  the  history  and 
adoption  of  the  federal  constitution  and  to  the  study  of 'the  subject 
of  state  government.  Two  weeks  are  then  devoted  to  the  features  of 
party  government.  The  theory  of  the  course  is  to  introduce  the  stu- 
dent to  the  various  phases  of  government  and  politics  as  illustrated  by 
American  experience.  No  attempt  is  made  to  outline  the  structure 
of  European  governments. 

In  addition  to  this  work  every  member  of  the  class  is  required  to 

1  Furnished  by  W.  J.  Shepard. 


INSTRUCTION  IN  COLLEGES  AND  UNIVERSITIES    217 

select  for  critical  study  from  a  list  of  books  one  on  some  phase  of 
American  government. 

The  plan  is  found  to  give  satisfactory  results.  The  small  sections 
for  oral  quizzes  allow  individual  instruction.  The  written  quizzes 
give  an  efficient  check  on  work  assigned  in  the  text  and  assigned 
readings,  and  the  assignment  of  a  special  volume  gives  an  intensive 
study  in  a  particular  field.1 

3.  That  more  emphasis  be  given  to  administrative  methods  and  the 
enforcement  of  the  law. 

One  of  the  points  of  controversy  in  the  making  of  schedules 
of  courses  in  political  science  is  to  determine  the  relative  amount 
of  emphasis  to  be  given  to  constitutional  and  political  history, 
to  the  legal  framework  and  organization  of  government  and 
to  the  study  of  government  as  a  functioning  organ.  Answers 
to  an  inquiry  submitted  to  instructors,  although  usually  based 
upon  rough  estimates,  indicated  that  almost  twice  as  much  time 
is  given  to  the  structure  of  government  as  to  constitutional 
history,  and  that  as  a  rule  the  study  of  functions  or  "physiology 
of  politics"  receives  more  attention  than  legal  framework  and 
constitutional  history  combined. 

There  is  evidently  a  marked  tendency  in  both  colleges  and 
universities  to  shift  the  emphasis  from  constitutional  history 
(this  subject  being  left  frequently  to  the  department  of  history 
or  dropped  entirely)  and  governmental  organization  to  the  anal- 
ysis and  consideration  of  government  in  operation. 

The  following  comments  are  typical: 

Beloit: — Greatest  stress  on  functions,  much  effort  made  to 
show  real  vital  activities  of  the  present  and  how  they  rather  than 
constitutional  framework  disclose  real  government. 

Columbia  University: — Within  the  past  few  years  there  has 
been  a  very  marked  emphasis  placed  upon  the  actual  workings 
of  government  as  compared  with  constitutional  theory  or  con- 
stitutional history. 

1  Furnished  by  Chester  Lloyd  Jones. 


2i8  THE  TEACHING  OF  GOVERNMENT 

Grinnell  College: — We  place  the  emphasis  decidedly  on  gov- 
ernmental functions  and  activities.  The  historical  side  of  our 
work  receives  the  least  consideration.  Government  as  it  is  and 
as  it  promises  to  be  is  what  we  seek  to  understand.  , 

Ohio  State  University: — The  tendency  in  successive  rear- 
rangements of  courses  is  to  lay  more  stress  upon  governmental 
functions  and  activities. 

University  of  Michigan: — While  I  cannot  give  divisions  of 
time,  I  stress  functions  and  activities  rather  than  framework, 
though  the  latter  is  absolutely  necessary  to  an  understanding  of 
the  former,  i.  e.,  a  knowledge  of  anatomy  should  precede  that  of 
physiology  or  pathology. 

University  of  Wisconsin: — In  all  advanced  courses  a  knowl- 
edge of  constitutional  and  institutional  history  and  develop- 
ment is  assumed,  and  the  functions,  activities  and  forces  are 
discussed.  In  the  more  elementary  courses  the  emphasis  is  on 
constitutional  history  and  strongly  on  legal  framework  of  govern- 
ment. 

So  far  as  it  is  possible  to  judge  the  content  of  courses  by  the 
brief  announcements  in  college  catalogues  it  appears  that  pri- 
mary consideration  is  given  to  constitutions,  to  administrative 
organization,  and  to  the  organization  of  political  parties.  In 
the  courses  in  American  government,  the  national  government 
receives  most  attention,  state  government  next,  and  then  come 
in  order  local  and  municipal.  The  proportionate  distribution  of 
time  which  results  leaves  but  little  opportunity  to  deal  with  local 
government  and  gives  but  scant  attention  to  the  judiciary.  In 
view  of  the  fact  that  no  small  part  of  law  is  made  by  the  courts, 
and  that  the  average  citizen  is  affected  most  by  the  rules  as  laid 
down,  interpreted  and  applied  by  the  judiciary,  it  seems  strange 
that  the  legislative  department  should  have  been  given  compara- 
tively so  much  more  attention  by  students  of  government  than 
judicial  administration  and  administrative  practices.  These 
topics  are  frequently  treated  inadequately  in  elementary  texts 


INSTRUCTION  IN  COLLEGES  AND  UNIVERSITIES    219 

and  often  they  are  entirely  neglected.  The  emphasis  on  the 
study  of  functions  rather  than  machinery,  the  introduction  of 
courses  in  administrative  methods  and  the  beginning  of  a  more 
scientific  study  of  judicial  administration  are  all  tending  to  shift 
the  emphasis  in  government  instruction. 

4.  That  instructors  in  political  science  encourage  students  to  pre- 
pare reports  and  surveys  on  actual  political  conditions. 
One  of  the  general  charges  brought  against  teachers  is  the 
failure  to  relate  the  instruction  given  to  the  conditions  and  en- 
vironment of  the  students.  According  to  this  charge  it  is  the 
purpose  of  education  to  give  an  interpretation  of  everything  in 
the  realm  of  nature  and  thought  except  the  commonplace  affairs 
to  be  found  in  the  very  midst  of  the  school,  the  home  and  the 
community  in  which  the  children  live.  To  a  certain  extent  this 
charge  is  true  as  applied  to  instruction  in  government.  The 
governments  of  Europe,  the  national  government,  and  per- 
chance a  slight  glance  at  state  government  have  virtually 
crowded  out  the  study  of  local  police  courts,  the  townhall  and 
county  affairs  and  the  myriad  problems  of  local  and  municipal 
government.  While  the  botanist,  geologist,  biologist  and  chem- 
ist have  begun  to  make  use  of  the  marvelous  environment  with 
which  each  community  is  endowed  the  teachers  of  government 
have  been  exceedingly  slow  to  appreciate  the  priceless  heritage 
of  social  and  political  institutions  surrounding  each  individual. 
The  emphasis  on  community  civics  in  the  schools  has  begun  to 
introduce  a  change  in  perspective  and  has  tended  to  make  the 
elementary  study  of  government  concrete  and  vital.  Legisla- 
tive and  municipal  reference  libraries  and  bureaus  of  research 
have  paved  the  way  for  an  exceedingly  fruitful  field  for  the  col- 
leges and  universities.  A  few  instructors  have  appreciated  the 
possibilities  of  putting  students  to  useful  endeavor  and  at  the 
same  time  giving  them  exceedingly  valuable  training.  The 
opportunity  of  turning  to  advantage  some  of  the  hitherto 


220  THE  TEACHING  OF  GOVERNMENT 

wasted  efforts  has  possibilities  which  can  be  only  vaguely 
conceived. 

One  need  only  examine  the  character  and  scope  of  the  work 
accomplished  by  a  few  of  the  bureaus  undertaking  such  investi- 
gations and  reports  to  be  convinced  of  the  great  value  to  the 
community  and  the  excellent  training  gained  thereby.  Such  bu- 
reaus may  be  converted  into  veritable  government  laboratories 
where  are  rendered  available  not  only  the  recent  literature  on 
special  subjects  but  also  maps,  charts  and  a  collection  of  material 
prepared  in  graphic  form.  By  the  aid  of  small  classes  of  mature 
students  governmental  surveys  may  be  undertaken  and  much 
material  presented  in  a  form  which  can  be  used  by  citizens  and 
public  officials. 

Of  course  this  kind  of  thing  can  readily  be  overdone  and  the 
work  of  the  class-room  can  be  easily  cheapened  by  too  frequent 
sociological  excursions  and  holidays.  Practical  work  needs  to 
be  specially  guarded,  sparingly  used,  and  credit  should  be  given 
only  under  rigorous  conditions  which  meet  the  standard  require- 
ments of  scientific  accuracy,  completeness  and  thoroughness. 
Under  such  conditions  work  of  this  character  may  be  made  a 
valuable  supplement  and  inspiration  and  may  be  so  directed 
as  to  turn  to  the  profit  of  the  community. 

5.  That  Reference  Libraries  and  Research  Bureaus  be  estab- 
lished for  the  purpose  of  rendering  aid  to  government  officials  and 
interested  citizens. 

The  development  of  the  use  of  charts  in  surveys  and  the  presen- 
tation of  government  facts  in  graphic  form  for  various  purposes, 
along  with  the  rise  of  reference  libraries  and  bureaus  of  research, 
have  had  a  marked  influence  upon  the  study  as  well  as  the 
operation  of  government.  It  is  just  as  necessary  for  teachers 
of  government  to  have  a  special  room  with  adequate  equipment 
as  it  is  for  teachers  of  geology  or  chemistry.  In  fact  the  nature 
of  much  material  along  governmental  lines  is  such  that  it  can 


INSTRUCTION  IN  COLLEGES  AND  UNIVERSITIES    221 

be  collected,  classified  and  effectively  used  only  when  concen- 
trated in  a  room  under  the  immediate  direction  and  supervision 
of  the  department.  Maps,  charts  and  graphic  material  should 
be  used  much  more  freely  in  all  political  instruction,  and  this 
will  never  be  possible  until  separate  quarters  are  set  apart  for 
this  purpose.  The  use  of  government  reports  and  graphic  ma- 
terial, the  preparation  of  such  material  by  students,  the  proper 
preservation  and  disposal  of  documents  and  charts  require  a 
separate  room  with  full  equipment  for  modern  reference  library 
work  and  with  special  appliances  for  the  constant  use  of  graphic 
methods. 

The  excellent  work  being  done  by  the  state  universities 
through  bureaus  of  research  and  reference  on  municipal  affairs 
gives  an  indication  as  to  what  may  be  accomplished  in  the  way 
of  improving  instruction  as  well  as  rendering  extremely  useful 
service  to  the  public.  Similar  bureaus  might  well  be  organized 
dealing  with  state  and  federal  affairs  with  the  twofold  purpose 
of  serving  as  laboratories  for  the  study  of  government  and  for 
rendering  service  to  the  public. 

6.  That  provision  be  made  for  professional  training  for  certain 
branches  of  the  public  service. 

More  than  thirty  years  ago  Honorable  Andrew  D.  White 
called  the  attention  of  educators  to  the  fact  that,  in  striking 
contrast  with  European  countries,  there  was  no  such  thing  as 
training  for  the  public  service  in  the  United  States.  Although 
the  past  thirty  years  have  witnessed  a  remarkable  development 
of  university  instruction  along  the  lines  of  government,  econom- 
ics, and  sociology,  the  attention  of  the  country  was  only  recently 
directed  again  to  the  utter  neglect  of  training  for  public  office 
both  in  and  out  of  educational  institutions.  Various  committees 
of  national  organizations  have  investigated  and  rendered  re- 
ports. National  societies  and  local  organizations  have  been 
formed  to  train  for  the  public  service.  So  much  has  been  written 


222  THE  TEACHING  OF  GOVERNMENT 

along  this  line  that  one  is  astonished  to  find  how  few  positions 
there  are  for  which  special  training  is  not  now  given  in  univer- 
sities and  how  rare  the  cases  are  that  men  specially  trained  for 
such  service  receive  permanent  appointments  with  adequate 
salary  and  opportunity  for  advancement.  The  committee  on 
training  for  public  service  of  Columbia  University  explains  the 
present  situation  in  some  conclusions  which  may  well  be  repeated 
here. 

First.  The  most  important  positions  which  are  attractive  to  college 
men  and  women  are  filled  by  political  appointment  and  are,  therefore, 
on  the  "exempt"  list.  In  New  York  City,  the  exempt  class  includes, 
besides  heads  of  departments,  deputy  commissioners,  secretaries  of 
departments,  all  high  salaried  assistants  to  the  corporation  counsel, 
numerous  accountants,  auditors,  and  examiners,  confidential  inspec- 
tors, consulting  and  chief  engineers,  superintendents,  assistant 
superintendents,  and  similar  officers  of  high  grade. 

Appointments  to  such  positions  are  usually  made  by  either  elective 
or  appointive  officers,  and  the  selections  are  determined  largely  by 
personal  and  political  considerations.  The  persons  chosen  are  usually 
lawyers,  journalists,  business  men,  or  party  workers.  It  is  not  often 
that  a  young  college  graduate  is  given  a  post  of  trust  in  the  public 
service.  Experience,  maturity,  and  what  is  known  in  politics  as 
"availability"  are  the  controlling  factors. 

The  terms  of  such  positions  are  limited  and  the  tenure  is  uncertain. 
Although  there  are  several  conspicuous  exceptions,  a  public  career  by 
the  way  of  political  appointment  is  very  unusual..  To  encourage 
students  to  prepare  themselves  solely  for  positions  in  this  branch  of 
public  service  would  therefore  be  a  breach  of  academic  trust.  Law- 
yers, journalists,  and  business  men  have  their  means  of  livelihood  and 
independence  until  the  desirable  political  appointments  come,  and  at 
the  end  of  their  terms  they  may  return  to  their  previous  occupations. 
But  the  student  carefully  trained  in  political  and  administrative 
science  and  disciplined  by  practical  experience  is  not  so  fortunate  if  the 
desired  career  in  official  service  does  not  open  when  he  has  completed 
his  preparation. 

Clearly,  it  would  be  inadvisable  for  the  University  to  announce  that 
it  is  prepared  to  train  men  and  women  for  the  higher  non-technical 
branches  of  public  service,  when  as  a  matter  of  fact  the  system  of 


INSTRUCTION  IN  COLLEGES  AND  UNIVERSITIES    223 

appointments  and  tenures  now  prevailing  in  the  United  States  does 
not  offer  adequate  opportunity  for  careers  in  such  branches.  The 
fact  that  the  Training  School  for  Public  Service  in  New  York,  sup- 
ported by  the  prestige  of  the  Bureau  of  Municipal  Research,  has  sent, 
in  its  three  years  of  work,  only  eight  or  ten  of  its  students  into  official 
service  of  any  kind  and  only  three  or  four  men  into  regular  adminis- 
trative positions  of  high  character  is  an  indication  of  the  difficulties 
which  lie  in  the  way  of  finding  satisfactory  openings  in  official  public 
service  for  those  specially  trained. 

With  regard  to  positions  in  the  official  service  open  to  college 
men  and  women  on  a  competitive  basis  and  reasonably  attractive 
in  opportunities  and  rewards  the  committee  finds  two  classes. 
The  first  group  is  that  of  technical  and  professional  positions, 
of  which  there  are  a  large  number  in  state  and  federal  civil 
service.  For  these  technical  positions  the  courses  now  given  in 
the  large  universities  like  Columbia  are  found  to  be  well  adapted 
to  the  preparation  of  students  for  examinations.  A  second 
group  is  designated  as  non-technical  administrative  positions, 
very  few  of  which  are  regarded  as  desirable  openings  for  a  career 
in  the  public  service. 

To  offset  these  rather  discouraging  observations  it  is  asserted 
that  improvement  in  civil  administration  in  the  United  States 
has  originated  in  large  measure  in  societies  organized  and  main- 
tained by  private  citizens  such  as  Bureaus  of  Research,  Civic 
Leagues,  etc.,  and  that  by  far  the  most  important  openings  for 
college  men  and  women  arise  in  connection  with  such  organiza- 
tions as  directors,  secretaries,  and  expert  workers.  It  is,  the 
committee  notes,  "this  unofficial  public  service  that  offers  the 
largest  attractions  to  college  men  and  women  and  opens  the  best 
gateway  to  direct  official  service."  Suggestions  for  a  program 
of  studies  leading  to  the  public  service  are  then  offered  compris- 
ing: 

1.  Two  or  three  years  of  regular  college  training  including  ele- 

mentary government,  economics,  etc. 

2.  One  year  of  special  training  embracing  such  subjects  as  munic- 


224  THE  TEACHING  OF  GOVERNMENT 

ipal  government,  administrative  law,  government  accounting, 
public  finance,  statistics  and  graphic  methods,  etc. 
3.  One  year  of  contact  or  field  work  and  observation  involving: 

a.  Budget  making. 

b.  The  investigation  of  several  branches  of  public  administra- 

tion. 
C.  The  preparation  of  reports  and  recommendations  on  the 

basis  of  ascertained  results. 
d.  The  practice  of  presenting  oral  statements  of  results  in 

short  form. 

Of  a  similar  character  is  the  "proposed  standard  regulations 
for  the  Ph.  D.  degree"  prepared  by  the  committee  on  Practical 
Training  for  Public  Service  of  the  American  Political  Science 
Association,  according  to  which  candidates  for  the  doctor's  de- 
gree in  the  social  sciences  may  fulfill  the  resident  requirements 
of  three  years'  graduate  study  as  follows:' 

1.  Two  years'  resident  graduate  study  in  some  recognized  institution 

of  learning. 

2.  Practical  work  for  at  least  eleven  months  in  a  governmental 

department,  bureau  or  commission,  a  legislative  reference 
library,  a  bureau  of  municipal  research  or  similar  organization. 

The  above  proposals  are  presented  merely  as  instances  of  a 
beginning  made  to  consider  and  to  aim  consciously  to  pro- 
vide training  for  the  public  service.  Obviously  progress  will  be 
slow  in  making  provision  for  professional  training  in  many 
branches  of  government  service  and  even  more  slow  will  be 
the  possibility  of  securing  places  for  those  competently  trained. 
But  the  committee  includes  this  recommendation  chiefly  with 
the  end  in  view  of  encouraging  the  formation  of  such  committees 
as  that  of  Columbia  University  in  order  that  attention  may  be 
called  to  the  facilities  now  offered  for  such  training,  and  that 
when  deemed  appropriate  suggestions  may  be  made  as  to  modi- 
fications in  existing  courses  or  the  addition  of  new  courses,  and 
further  that  the  attention  of  students  as  well  as  the  public  may 
be  called  to  the  facilities  now  available  for  such  training. 


APPENDIX 

REPORTS  OF  STATE  COMMITTEES  ON  THE  TEACH- 
ING OF  CIVICS  IN  ELEMENTARY  AND  SECOND- 
ARY SCHOOLS 

In  order  to  secure  additional  data  and  to  offer  a  fairly  accurate 
account  of  the  status  of  instruction  in  government  arrangements 
were  made  for  the  appointment  of  state  committees  on  the  teach- 
ing of  civics.  State  departments  of  public  instruction  and  the 
departments  of  social  and  political  sciences  in  universities  aided 
in  the  selection  of  the  committees.  The  members  chosen  were 
as  a  rule  teachers  of  civics,  superintendents  and  principals,  and 
others  who  are  particularly  interested  in  civic  instruction.  These 
committees  not  only  rendered  invaluable  assistance  in  the 
gathering  of  data  but  also  gave  advice  in  the  preparation  of 
suggestions  as  to  methods  and  courses  of  study.  In  a  number 
of  cases  information  was  furnished  but  no  formal  report  was 
prepared.  For  the  investigations  a  questionnaire  similar  in 
form  to  that  used  in  the  Bureau  of  Education  inquiry  1  was 
suggested  in  order  to  secure  uniform  returns.  The  results  se- 
cured by  many  of  the  committees  and  the  reports  based  on  a 
careful  survey  of  the  state  constitute  an  important  record  as 
to  the  condition  of  government  instruction  in  the  public  schools. 
The  committee  on  instruction  regrets  that  not  all  of  the  thor- 
ough and  interesting  reports  from  these  committees  can  be  pre- 
sented in  full.  Owing  to  the  limits  of  space,  it  has  been  neces- 
sary to  condense  the  longer  and  more  extensive  reports.  An 
effort  has  been  made  to  include  the  most  valuable  portions  of 

1  See  pp.  -7450. 
225 


226  APPENDIX 

each  report,  and  with  but  few  exceptions  the  exact  language  of 
the  original  report  is  followed. 

I.  MEMBERS  OF  STATE  COMMITTEES  AND  STATE  REPRESENTATIVES 
SELECTED  TO  AID  THE  COMMITTEE  ON  INSTRUCTION 

Arizona: 

Harold  Steele,  Principal,  Tucson  High  School. 

Arkansas: 

David  Y.  Thomas,  Chairman,  University  of  Arkansas,  Fayette- 
ville. 

B.  W.  Torreyson,  Little  Rock. 

R.  E.  Womack,  State  Normal,  Conway. 
L.  E.  Bassett,  Pine  Bluff. 
R.  C.  Hall,  City  Superintendent,  Little  Rock. 
J.  W.  Kuykendoll,  Fort  Smith. 

C.  H.  Brough,  University  of  Arkansas,  Fayetteville. 

Alabama: 

D.  G.  Chase,  Chairman,  Central  High  School,  Birmingham. 
John  B.  Clark,  Guin. 

E.  M.  Shackelford,  Troy. 

C.  V.  Thompson,  Wetumpka. 

Foster  Ausley,  Central  High  School,  Birmingham. 

California: 

William  J.  Cooper,  Chairman,  Berkeley  High  School. 
J.  R.  Sutton,  Oakland  High  School. 
Roscoe  L.  Ashley,  Pasadena  High  School. 
Anna  Stewart,  Los  Angeles  High  School. 
E.  G.  Nash,  Marysville  High  School. 

Colorado: 

Ira  Nestor,  North  Side  High  School,  Denver. 

Delaware: 

E.  V.  Vaughan,  Chairman,  Delaware  College,  Newark.  ; 

J.  E.  Chipman,  Principal,  Delmar. 

W.  H.  Jump,  Principal,  Harrington. 

R.  F.  Friedel,  Principal,  Newark. 

W.  K.  Yerger,  Principal,  2325  Penna.  Ave.,  Wilmington. 


APPENDIX  227 

Georgia: 

J.  F.  Thomason,  Chairman,  Superintendent,  Bainbridge. 
Julia  Flisch,  Augusta. 
Florence  Berne,  Macon. 
Bethe  Rucker,  Brunswick. 
Lola  Kestley,  Americus. 

Illinois: 

L.  A.  Fulwider,  Chairman,  Principal,  Freeport. 

Mary  Childs,  Evanston  High  School,  Evanston. 

U.  S.  Parker,  Quincy  High  School,  Quincy. 

Silas  Echols,  Township  High  School,  Mt.  Vernon. 

W.  R.  Spurrier,  Principal,  Township  High  School,  Princeton. 

Indiana: 

O.  H.  Williams,  Chairman,  Indiana  University,  Bloomington. 

D.  W.  Horton,  Mishawaka  High  School,  Mishawaka. 

Charles  Roll,  Department  of  American  History,  State  Normal 

School,  Terre  Haute. 
Mrs.  Hope  Graham,  Shortridge  High  School,  Indianapolis. 

Iowa: 

Aaron  Palmer,  Chairman,  Superintendent,  Marshalltown. 

J.  E.  Marshall,  Principal,  Council  Bluffs. 

C.  C.  Ball,  Boone. 

George  A.  Brown,  Principal,  Burlington  High  School,  Burlington. 

Alice  E.  Moss,  W.  Des  Moines  High  School,  Des  Moines. 

Kentucky: 

A.  M.  Stickles,  Chairman,  State  Normal  School,  Bowling  Green. 
Charles  Keith,  Kentucky  State  Normal,  Richmond. 
George  W.  Calvin,  Superintendent,  Springfield. 
J.  H.  Bentley,  Superintendent,  Paducah. 
L.  E.  Foster,  Hopkinsville. 

Louisiana: 

A.  J.  Caldwell,  Chairman,  Principal,  Hammond  High  School. 

E.  F.  Dummeier,  Principal,  Leesville  High  School. 
S.  M.  Brame,  Principal,  Alexandria  High  School. 
Grace  Sharp,  Shreveport  High  School. 

J.  H.  Dupuy,  Louisiana  Industrial  Institute,  Ruston. 


228  APPENDIX 

Maine: 

Fred  D.  Wish,  Jr.,  Chairman,  Portland  High  School. 
A.  W.  Reynolds,  Biddeford  High  School. 

E.  S.  Lewis,  Auburn  High  School. 
Elmer  T.  Boyd,  Bangor  High  School. 
Charles  L.  Smith,  Principal,  Bath  High  School. 

Maryland: 

Charles  H.  Kolb,  Chairman,  Principal,  Westminster  High  School. 

Joseph  Blair,  Principal,  Sparrows  Point  High  School. 

Mary  C.  Ott,  Frederick. 

Margaret  A.  Pfeiffer,  Assistant  in  High  School,  Ellicott  City. 

David  E.  Weglein,  Principal  Western  High  School,  Baltimore. 

Massachusetts: 

Edwin  A.  Cottrell,  Wellesley  College,  Wellesley,  Mass. 

Michigan; 

Carl  Pray,  Ypsilanti  Normal  School,  Ypsilanti. 

Minnesota: 

N.  R.  Ringdahl,  Chairman,  Superintendent,  Rush  City. 
P.  M.  Magnuson,  State  Normal,  St.  Cloud. 
W.  H.  Shepard,  North  High  School,  Minneapolis. 
Albert  J.  Lobb,  West  High  School,  Minneapolis. 

F.  W.  Moore,  State  Normal,  Winona. 

Missouri: 

Eugene  Fair,  Chairman,  State  Normal  School,  Kirksville. 

H.  R.  Tucker,  McKinley  High  School,  Webster  Groves. 

William  A.  Lewis,  Central  High  School,  Kansas  City. 

Lowry  Doran,  Springfield  High  School. 

P.  P.  Galloway,  High  School  Inspector,  State  Capitol,  Jefferson 

City. 
Alberta  M.  Ross,  Springfield  High  School. 

Montana: 

A.  J.  Roberts,  Chairman,  Principal,  Helena  High  School. 

Lewis  M.  Simes,  Missoula. 

Margaret  Boyle,  Butte. 

Otis  W.  Freeman,  Lewistown. 

Harold  Westergaard,  Billings. 


APPENDIX  229 

New  Hampshire: 

Guy  E.  Speare,  Chairman,  Littleton  High  School. 

C.  F.  Cook,  Principal,  Concord. 

J.  F.  Smith,  Principal,  Keene. 

E.  W.  Butterfield,  Superintendent,  Dover. 

E.  P.  Freese,  Principal,  North  Stratford. 

New  Jersey: 

C.  Ernest  Dechant,  Chairman,  Supervising  Principal,  Haddon- 

field. 

Sara  N.  Dynes,  State  Normal  School,  Trenton. 
Edward  A.  Parker,  New  Brunswick  High  School. 
Harry  F.  Stauffer,  Principal,  Washington  Street  Grammar  School, 

Newark. 
Walter  H.  Mohr,  Milville  High  School. 

New  York: 

William  W.   Rogers,   Chairman,  Curtis  High  School,  Staten 

Island,  N.  Y.  C. 

M.  L.  Dann,  Richmond  Hill  High  School,  N.  Y.  C. 
S.  J.  Jumnefsky,  Julia  Richman  High  School,  N.  Y.  C. 
George  D.  Luetscher,  Jamaica  High  School,  N.  Y.  C. 
Harrison  C.  Thomas,  DeWitt  Clinton  High  School,  N.  Y.  C. 
E.  D.  Lewis,  High  School  of  Commerce,  N.  Y.  C. 

North  Carolina: 

W.  C.  Jackson,  Chairman,  State  Normal  School,  Greenboro. 

C.  L.  Coon,  Superintendent,  Wilson. 

L.  Lea  White,  Principal,  Winston-Salem. 

T.  Wingate  Andrews,  Superintendent,  Reidsville. 

North  Dakota: 

Albert  Vollweiler,  Chairman,  University. 
J.  S.  Bjornson,  LaMoure. 
Norman  Smith,  Cando. 
R.  B.  Murphy,  Michigan. 
Oscar  Erickson,  Hatton. 

Ohio: 

L.  O.  Lantis,  Chairman,  North  High  School,  Columbus. 
Grace  Morris,  Defiance. 
E.  M.  Benedict,  Cincinnati. 
W.  H.  Townsend,  Ashtabula. 
H.  J.  Dickerson,  Newark. 


230  APPENDIX 

Oklahoma: 

Dr.  Charles  Evans,  President,  Central  Normal  School,  Edmond. 

Oregon: 

Herbert  B.  Augur,  Jefferson  High  School,  Portland. 

Pennsylvania: 

W.  D.  Renninger,  Chairman,  Central  High  School,  Philadelphia. 

D.  Montfort  Melchoir,  Girard  College,  Philadelphia. 
C.  D.  Koch,  State  High  School  Inspector,  Harrisburg. 
T.  D.  Brown,  Peabody  High  School,  Pittsburgh. 
Samuel  E.  Weber,  Superintendent,  Scranton. 

South  Carolina: 

Frank  E.  Broyles,  Chairman,  Columbia. 
Elizabeth  Baskerville,  Orangeburg  High  School. 
Alice  Stribling,  Spartanburg  High  School. 
Samuel  W.  Anderson,  Anderson  High  School. 
T.  M.  Seawell,  Superintendent,  Blackville. 

South  Dakota: 

H.  C.  Johnson,  Chairman,  Superintendent,  Aberdeen. 

Luman  Sampson,  Aberdeen  High  School. 

W.  I.  Early,  Principal,  Sioux  FaUs  High  School. 

J.  C.  Lindsey,  Principal,  Mitchell. 

Joseph  T.  Glenn,  Superintendent,  Milbank. 

Tennessee: 

J.  L.  Highsaw,  Central  High  School,  Memphis. 

Texas: 

Rush  M.  Caldwell,  Chairman,  Dallas  High  School. 
C.  C.  Pearson,  Houston  High  School. 

E.  T.  Genheimer,  Principal,  Waco  High  School. 

Thomas  Fletcher,  Visitor  of  Schools,  University  of  Texas,  Austin. 

Utah: 

L.  J.  Muir,  Chairman,  Bountiful. 
Enoch  Jorgensen,  Sandy. 
L.  J.  Nuttall,  Spanish  Fork. 
H.  Claude  Lewis,  Filmore. 
P.  M.  Nielsen,  Mt.  Pleasant. 

Vermont: 

George  G.  Groat,  University  of  Vermont,  Burlington. 


APPENDIX  231 

Virginia: 

J.  M.  Lear,  Chairman,  State  Normal  School,  Farmville. 
T.  J.  Stubbs,  Jr.,  John  Marshall  High  School,  Richmond. 
John  W.  Wayland,  Harrisonburg. 
Edgar  Sydenstricker,  Lynchburg. 

Washington: 

E.  C.  Roberts,  Chairman,  Principal,  Everett  High  School. 

C.  A.  Sprague,  Assistant  Superintendent,  Olympia. 

H.  C.  Crumpacker,  Sedro-Wolley. 

A.  Lyle  Kaye,  North  Central  High  School,  Spokane. 

S.  E.  Fleming,  Franklin  High  School,  Seattle. 

West  Virginia: 

C.  L.  Broadwater,  Chairman,  Mannington  High  School. 
J.  H.  Thornton,  Wheeling  High  School. 
Minnie  Lee  Goff,  Charleston  High  School. 
Dora  Lee  Newman,  Fairmont  High  School. 
R.  0.  Hall,  Morgantown  High  School. 

Wisconsin: 

A.  C.  Shong,  Chairman,  Principal  West  Division  High  School, 

Milwaukee. 

Ira  C.  Painter,  Principal,  Wausau. 
J.  W.  T.  Aines,  Superintendent,  Monroe. 
W.  J.  Hamilton,  Principal,  Two  Rivers. 
J.  J.  Enright,  Principal,  Plymouth. 

Wyoming: 

Beulah   M.    Garrard,    Chairman,    Department   of    Secondary 

Education,  University  of  Wyoming,  Laramie. 
V.  H.  Rowland,  Superintendent,  Lusk. 
W.  M.  Baker,  Superintendent,  Worland. 
R.  M.  Shreves,  Superintendent,  Rawlins. 
Mary  Persinger,  Sheridan. 

II.  REPORTS  ON  THE  TEACHING  OF  Civics 

ALABAMA 
i.  Grade  Schools: 

The  state  course  of  study  prescribes  civics  in  the  seventh  or 
highest  grade  of  the  public  schools. 


232  APPENDIX 

Superintendent  of  Education  estimates  that  there  were  18,169 
pupils  in  the  seventh  grade  enrolled  in  civics — total  enrolment 
in  the  grades  467,876. 

There  is  practically  no  instruction  below  the  seventh  grade. 

2.  High  Schools: 

(a)  City: 

Among  replies  received,  three  schools — Tuscaloosa,  Gadsden  and 
Birmingham — report  special  work  outside  of  the  text. 

In  all  these  the  student  government  organizations  are  giving  to  the 
pupils  excellent  training  for  citizenship.  The  civics  classes  in  all  three 
are  making  surveys  of  their  respective  cities  as  to  government,  sanita- 
tion, parks,  playgrounds,  etc. 

In  Birmingham  jury  trial,  nomination  and  election  of  state  officers 
have  been  enacted  by  the  civics  classes;  a  study  of  current  events  with 
class  reports  and  general  discussion  has  been  made,  and  the  different 
forms  of  county,  state  and  city  blanks  and  legal  documents  have 
been  brought  into  the  class,  studied  and  explained.  Last  year  the 
boys'  literary  clubs  staged  the  state  legislature  and  enacted  several 
laws. 

At  Tuscaloosa  the  boys  of  the  civics  classes  have  joined  the  civic 
league  of  the  city.  They  are  exempt  from  fees,  but  may  attend  all 
meetings,  speak  on  any  subject  before  that  body,  but  have  no  vote. 
They  aid  the  league  by  gathering  desired  statistics,  serving  as  guides 
and  escorts  to  noted  guests  of  the  league. 

(b)  County: 

Time  devoted  to  subject  is  usually  four  and  one-half  months  of 
five  periods  per  week.  A  majority  of  schools  owing  to  the  lack 
of  library  facilities  and  poorly  trained  teachers  do  not  under- 
take to  use  parallel  readings  or  to  do  practical  work.  One  of 
the  district  agricultural  schools  reports  that  there  is  self- 
government  in  the  school,  fashioned  after  the  state  govern- 
ment and  that  the  students  are  taught  government  at  first 
hand. 

3.  Normal  Schools: 

In  the  first  year  one-third  of  a  year  is  devoted  to  Alabama  history 

and  elementary  civil  government. 
In  four-year  schools  an  advanced  course  in  the  senior  class  is 

devoted  to  American  history  and  government.    The  actual 


APPENDIX  233 

time  given  to  government  varies  considerably.  Text-book 
method  largely  used,  supplemented  by  occasional  lectures  and 
a  little  laboratory  work. 

Submitted  by  D.  G.  Chase,  Chairman. 

ARKANSAS 

I.  Preparation: 

Normal  Training.    Two  courses  in  civics  are  offered  in  the  Normal 
School  at  Conway. 

(a)  An  elementary  course,  such  as  is  usually  offered  in  the  high 
schools.    Boynton's  text  is  used  and  this  is  supplemented  by  a  con- 
siderable use  of  magazines,  newspapers,  ballots,  etc.    Required  of  all 
students  enrolled  in  the  "Rural  Teachers  Course." 

(b)  Advanced  course  for  seniors  hi  the  regular  normal  course. 
Garner's  text  is  used,  supplemented  by  references  to  Bryce,  Burgess, 
Ashley,  Garner  (Political  Science),  Beard,  Wilson,  etc.    Considerable 
use  is  made  of  government  reports,  both  state  and  national  ballots, 
initiative  petitions,  printed  bills,  etc.    Officials  are  invited  to  address 
the  class  and,  when  possible,  they  are  taken  to  visit  the  legislature, 
the  quorum  court,  circuit  court,  and  the  state  institutions. 

II.  Actual  teaching: 

A.  Grammar  Grades: 

In  the  grammar  grades  many  teachers  pay  no  attention  to  civics 
until  the  seventh  or  eighth  grade.  They  say  that  it  is  impossible, 
without  unduly  crowding  the  course  of  study.  Others  begin  in  the 
second  grade  and  follow  up  with  practical  lessons  in  simplest  form 
bearing  upon  community  life,  relations  of  citizens  to  each  other,  their 
privileges  and  obligations,  "just  as  we  do  language  and  nature  study," 
says  one  teacher. 

B.  The  High  School: 

1.  In  the  high  school,  civics  is  taught  all  the  way  from  the  gth  to 
the  1 2th  grade.    Most  schools  allow  18  weeks,  a  few  12. 

2.  The  texts  used  range  from  such  ancient  books  as  Peterman  and 
Blocher  to  James  and  Sanford,  Garner,  Forman,  and  one  announces 
the  adoption  of  Beard.    For  supplementary  purposes  such  works  as 
Willoughby,  "Rights  and  Duties  of  the  Citizen,"  Kirby's  "Digest  of 
Arkansas  Statutes,"  and  official  reports  are  suggested  for  readings. 

3.  Little  criticism  of  texts  was  offered.    But  one  teacher  replied; 
"A  modern  up-to-date  text-book  informing  the  students  in  the  ele< 


234  APPENDIX 

mentary  schools  what  the  rights  and  duties  of  a  citizen  are  and  how 
they  may  secure  and  perform  the  same  ought  to  be  published  and  be 
required  by  law,  to  be  used  in  every  school  in  Arkansas."  A  proper 
appreciation  of  the  importance  of  local  government  is  yet  to  be 
created. 

4.  In  most  schools,  apparently,  most  emphasis  is  laid  on  what  the 
government  is,  and  how  it  operates,  rather  than  on  what  it  does  and 
the  place  of  a  citizen  in  it,  as  in  case  of  the  grammar  grades. 

5.  (a)  No  civic  scrap  book  was  reported. 

(b)  Several  report  weekly  drill  in  current  events. 

(c)  Some  debates. 

(d)  The  Literary  Digest,  Independent,  and  daily  papers  are  used 

for  supplementary  work. 

(e)  Very  few  talks  by  public  officials. 

(f)  Many  take  opportunity  to  visit  council  meetings,  courts, 

legislature,  etc.,  and  report  on  same. 

Submitted  by  D.  Y.  Thomas,  Chairman. 

CALIFORNIA 
Summary  of  the  report. 

Of  thirty-eight  high  schools  to  whom  a  questionnaire  was  sent, 
twenty-one  replied  answering  most  of  the  questions.  These  answers 
will  be  summarized: 

I.  Year  in  which  Course  is  Offered: 

9th  grade — 2;  in  Berkeley — local  civics  free  elective;  in  Sacra- 
mento— local  civics  required  of  all  pupils  in  commercial 
course,  in  Santa  Anna,  elective, 
loth  grade — none. 

nth  grade — 4  schools  including  2  schools  where  it  is  begun 
in  nth  and  finished  in  i2th,  and  including  Pasadena  where 
a  pupil  may  take  a  single  year  in  the  nth  or  the  i2th  or 
begin  in  the  nth  a  consecutive  two  years'  course. 
1 2th  grade — 17  schools,  not  including  Pasadena,  referred  to 
above.  In  Berkeley  and  Sacramento,  this  work  is  required 
of  all  graduating  pupils,  regardless  of  whether  they  have  the 
gth  grade  course. 

In  general,  the  upper  grade  civics  is  part  of  a  course  in  United  States 
history  and  civics  covering  together  a  year  (in  most  schools)  or  a 
year  and  a  half  (in  a  few,  especially  in  Southern  California). 


APPENDIX  235 

H.  Text-book  Used: 

It  was  the  opinion  of  the  committee  that  the  closest  approximation 
to  the  content  of  the  course  could  be  obtained  by  asking  for 

1.  The  text-book  used. 

2.  Portions  omitted. 

3.  Supplementary  work. 

With  this  in  mind,  the  committee  ascertained  from  State  Commis- 
sioner Wood  the  texts  used  in  all  California  high  schools.  This  in- 
formation had  been  collected  by  Mr.  Wood  in  the  Fall  of  1914  and  the 
reports  sent  instructors  showed  no  changes  in  the  Spring  of  1915 
except  that  some  of  the  schools  had  adopted  American  history  and 
government  by  Willis  M.  West,  published  by  Allyn  &  Bacon.  These 
schools  were  using  "Civil  Government  in  California"  by  John  R.  Sut- 
ton,  published  by  American  Book  Company  for  information  on  state 
and  local  government.  Other  than  these  two  books,  the  committee 
found  the  following  civics  books  used  in  California.  The  number  of 
schools  using  each  is  also  indicated. 

Ashley,  R.  L.   American  Government,  Macmillan  Co.,  1908 93 

Beard,  C.  A.,  &  M.  R.  American  Citizenship,  Macmillan  Co.,  1914    9 

Boynton,  F.  D.    School  Civics,  Ginn  &  Co 6 

Fiske,  John.   Civil  Government  in  the  U.  S.,  Houghton-Mifflin  Co., 

1890 2 

Forman,  S.  E.    Advanced  Civics,  Century  Co.,  N.  Y.,  1905-12- 

15 25 

Garner,  James  W.   Government  in  the  U.  S.,  American  Book  Co., 

1911 42 

Guitteau,  Wm.  B.   Government  &  Politics  in  the  U.  S.,  Houghton- 

Mifflin  Co.,  1911 8 

Hart,  A.  B.    Actual  Government,  Longmans,  Green  &  Company    2 
Hinsdale,  B.  A.  The  American  Government,  American  Book  Com- 
pany, 1905,  1891 4 

James,  J.  A.,  &  Sanford,  A.  B.    Government  in  State  and  Nation, 

Charles  Scribners  Sons,  1901,  n 2 

Moses,  B.    Government  of  the  U.  S.,  Appleton  and  Company i 

Of  the  schools  of  three  hundred  pupils  and  over  enrolled,  all  but 
three  out  of  thirty  use  either  Ashley's  or  Forman's  or  Garner's  book, 
and  each  of  these  three  uses  a  different  text  as  indicated  above.  Since 
this  information  was  collected,  West's  "History  and  Government" 
has  supplanted  one  or  the  other  of  these  books  in  a  few  of  the  larger 
schools,  exact  figures  not  obtainable  at  this  time. 


236  APPENDIX 

III.  Methods  of  Accomplishing  Supplementary  Work: 
Practically  all  of  the  schools  gave  information  on  tbis  point. 

(a)  Seventy-five  per  cent  used  informal  lectures,  twenty-five  per 

cent,  formal. 

(b)  Five  per  cent  have  typewritten  or  printed  supplements  pre- 

pared usually  by  the  department  head. 

(c)  Ninety  per  cent  make  use  of  reports  by  pupils  on  outside 

reading. 

(d)  Sixty  per  cent  have  pupils  take  notes  on  special  reports  made  by 

pupils. 

(e)  Approximately  sixty  per  cent  use  a  periodical  in  some  way. 

In  most  cases,  the  periodicals  are  in  the  libraries  and  refer- 
ences are  made  to  them,  although  some  schools  give  courses 
in  current  history. 

(f)  One  teacher  reports  success  in  organizing  the  class  as  a  legis- 

lature, political  convention  or  the  like.  Several  report 
success  with  visits  to  the  city  council.  Mr.  Sutton  of  Oak- 
land says,  "I  especially  favor  the  plan  of  having  pupils  make 
personal  investigations  of  various  offices  and  institutions 
and  report  to  the  classes."  Several  teachers  have  written 
reports  handed  in,  some  of  them  being  long  formal  themes  on 
topics  assigned  by  the  teacher  or  selected  by  the  pupil 
under  the  teacher's  direction. 

Summary  of  advice  on  instruction  in  government 

1.  Eleven  schools  (fifty  per  cent  of  those  answering)  approve  the 
N.  E.  A.  plan l  without  change.    Of  the  others,  there  was  no  agreement 
on  what  the  change  should  be,  although  two  disapproved  the  survey 
of  vocations  and  one  other  would  treat  the  survey  and  the  community 
civics  in  a  half  year. 

2.  In  reply  to  the  inquiry  whether  two  years  to  European  history 
and  two  years  to  citizenship  subjects  was  a  desirable  division  of  time 
sixteen  out  of  nineteen  replying  answered  "yes,"  two,  "no  "  and  one 
would  give  two  years  to  the  citizenship  subjects,  but  cut  the  Euro- 
pean history  to  one  year. 

3.  Asking  what  should  be  the  make-up  of  the  two  years  in  citizen- 
ship brought  forth  many  different  arrangements,  but  most  of  the 
answers  can  be  tabulated  as  follows: 

1  Reference  to  recommendations  of  Committee  on  Social  Studies. 


APPENDIX  237 

United  States  History One  year 13 

United  States  History One-half  year 2 

Civics One-half  year 1 1 

Civics One  year 3 

Economics One  year o 

Economics One-half  year 1 1 

Combination  of  Economics  &  Civics.  .One  year i 

One  would  include  what  he  calls  Elementary  Sociology  in  the  two- 
year  course. 

4.  Regarding  the  amount  to  be  prescribed. 

One  year 6 

Two  years 10 

Three  years 2 

Four  years i 

One  and  one-half  to  four  years, 

depending  on  the  course i 

Under  "one  year  "  above  are  two  classes  who  would  extend  the  course 
in  United  States  history  and  civics  to  one  and  one-half  years  and  pre- 
scribe this  amount. 

5.  It  is  impossible  to  classify  the  answers  on  the  amount  of  time 
to  be  given  to  current  events  other  than  to  state  that  about  a  third  of 
those  replying  would  give  it  approximately  twenty  per  cent  of  the 
time,  some  of  them  setting  apart  one  day  in  the  week  for  it. 

6.  Eleven  out  of  nineteen  answering,  would  treat  the  local  govern- 
ment first,  seven  would  begin  with  the  national  government  and  one 
varies  the  practice  depending  upon  current  events. 

7.  Only  eleven  answers  could  be  obtained  to  this  question,  which 
have  been  approximately  tabulated  as  follows: 

Approximate  time  allotted  to  study  of  division  of  government: 

No.  of  days  National             State  Local 

20                            36  3 

25                             14  2 

30                             3i  3 

35                             3  i 

4O  I  2 

8.  Eight  believe  a  short  general  treatise  should  precede  the  study  of 
governmental  machinery,  nine  disapprove. 


238  APPENDIX 

9.  Nine  favor  studying  machinery  first  and  functions  afterwards 
with  a  review  of  the  formal  side.  Six  would  take  them  up  together 
and  three  assert  that  it  is  unimportant.1 

Submitted  by  Wm.  J.  Cooper,  Chairman. 

COLORADO 

A.  Elementary  Schools: 

There  is  a  state  course  of  study  which  needs  rewriting  and  unifying. 
The  subjects  suggested  for  civics  in  the  grades  are  fairly  satisfactory. 
In  the  county  schools  the  aim  is  to  have  civics  in  the  eighth  grade. 
The  number  of  pupils  finishing  the  eighth  grade  of  the  rural  schools  is 
very  small,  and  that  means  most  of  them  get  little  knowledge  of 
civics.  The  present  state  superintendent  is  endeavoring  to  stand- 
ardize the  rural  schools,  about  half  of  the  rating  being  on  a  civic  basis. 
The  Colorado  State  Teachers  Association  is  lending  its  influence  in 
the  same  direction. 

B.  Secondary  Schools: 

The  study  of  civics  is  practically  unknown  in  the  short-course 
schools.  In  non-accredited  four-year  schools  it  occurs  in  only  about  a 
third  of  the  total  number  reporting,  or  in  about  twenty  schools.  In 
accredited  schools  it  occurs  in  between  sixty  and  sixty-five  out  of  the 
seventy-two  public  high  schools. 

The  length  of  the  course  is  usually  a  half  year.  In  1913-1914. 
fifteen  out  of  sixteen  non-accredited  schools  reporting  it  and  forty- 
eight  of  fifty-two  accredited  schools  reporting  it,  assigned  a  half  year 
to  the  subject.  The  others  assigned  a  year. 

In  a  half  dozen  cases  the  division  may  vary  somewhat  from  a  half 
year  to  history  and  the  following  half  year  to  civics,  but  there  is  no 
question  as  to  what  is  the  normal  condition  in  this  respect.  I  might 
state,  however,  that  in  possibly  a  dozen  of  these  schools  the  stress  is 
divided  fairly  equally  between  history  and  civics,  but  the  two  studies 
run  throughout  the  year  in  correlation.  The  attempt  is  to  introduce 
all  of  civics  at  the  logical  point  in  history. 

Among  the  non-accredited  schools  about  one-fourth  require  for 
graduation  a  half  year  of  civics;  among  accredited  schools  the  propor- 

1  An  appendix  to  the  report  gives  a  description  of  a  course  in  Civic  Prob- 
lems given  in  the  department  of  social  science  in  the  Pasadena  high  school 
and  the  report  contains  also  a  very  careful  analysis  of  the  content  of  the  texts 
most  commonly  used  in  the  state — Ashley,  Garner  and  Forman.  The 
California  committee  also  rendered  valuable  assistance  in  the  preparation  of 
suggestions  for  courses  of  study. 


APPENDIX  239 

tion  runs  slightly  higher.  One  accredited  school  requires  a  year. 
The  others  constituting  some  three-fourths,  leave  the  subject  an 
elective.  The  Emerson  School,  Denver,  has  in  the  eighth  grade  a 
senate  whose  function  it  is  to  encourage  good  citizenship  by  dis- 
couraging carelessness  in  school  life.  Small  fines  are  assessed  for  ink- 
spots  or  badly  kept  desks,  and  so  on.  All  the  high  schools  reporting 
do  something  of  a  practical  nature  such  as  studying  local  conditions. 
There  is  a  growing  feeling  that  more  ought  to  be  done  in  civics  and 
that  it  be  vitalized.  Denver  is  in  the  midst  of  a  school  survey  and 
indications  are  that  one  result  will  be  an  increased  emphasis  on  civics. 

A  serious  handicap  everywhere  is  the  lack  of  material  with  which  to 
work.  As  a  rule  school  libraries  are  woefully  behind  time.  Books 
suited  to  a  past  generation  burden  too  many  shelves.  In  particular 
there  is  a  serious  need  of  a  handbook  giving  detailed  information 
about  all  of  the  state's  affairs. 

It  is  fair  to  say  that  there  is  need  of  better  facilities  for  the  prepara- 
tion of  teachers  of  civics.  One  of  the  most  progressive  and  expe- 
rienced county  superintendents  writes:  "The  teacher's  preparation 
should  include  courses  in  method,  sociology,  psychology,  civics, 
economics;  universities  make  no  pretense  at  such  instruction  and 
too  many  of  our  normal  schools  are  neglecting  the  all  important 
task  of  first  teaching  the  subject  matter  of  these  branches.  An  ex- 
amination of  the  catalogues  of  Colorado  higher  schools  does  not  seem 
to  show  a  single  course  directed  specifically  to  this  end." 

Submitted  by  Ira  F.  Nestor,  State  Representative. 

GEORGIA 

Tabulation  of  replies  to  inquiries  made  to  ascertain  the  status  of  the 
teaching  of  civics  in  the  secondary  schools  of  Georgia  (November, 


Number  of  questionnaires  sent  out,  75. 

Replies,  28.    One  of  which  reported  no  civics  taught. 

Schools  requiring  the  teaching  of  civics:  Required  of  all  pupils,  u; 
Seniors  only,  5;  2d  year  boys,  i;  elective,  5;  certain  grades,  2;  not 
specifically  taught,  2. 

Texts  used:  Boynton's  School  Civics,  3;  Peterman,  3;  no  text,  3; 
James  &  Sanford,  2;  Forman's  Adv.  Civ.,  2;  Beard's,  i;  Stickle's,  i; 
Ashley,  2. 

Plan  of  course  as  to  text  and  outlines:  No  reports,  6;  text  followed, 
8;  indefinite,  5;  as  part  of  Amer.  Hist.,  4. 


240  APPENDIX 

Study  of  government  of  village,  city,  etc.:  No  report,  5;  followed 
text,  i;  attention  to  topics,  6;  Georgia  government,  i. 

Library  work:  No  report,  9;  interviews  with  officials,  4;  visits 
to  courts,  i;  limited,  3;  library  work  for  this  session,  i. 

Using  some  form  of  current  events:  Yes,  22;  No,  i. 

Cooperation  of  pupils  in  school  government:  Yes,  5;  some,  7; 
none,  7. 

Aims  for  teaching  of  civics:  good  citizenship;  awaken  sense  of 
responsibility;  arouse  desire  to  improve  conditions;  knowledge  of 
government;  self-government;  make  plain  pupil's  relations  to  the 
community  (broad  usage). 

Adaptation  of  teaching  to  aims:  yes,  8;  not  good,  5. 

It  does  not  seem  worth  while  to  try  to  make  a  very  careful  analysis 
of  these  returns,  since  they  plainly  indicate  that  civics  has  not  ob- 
tained a  very  important  place  in  the  high  schools  of  Georgia.  How- 
ever, there  are  some  encouraging  signs,  as:  use  of  current  events, 
attempts  toward  self-government,  an  awakening  to  the  practical  rela- 
tions of  the  study,  etc.  The  time  for  a  good  syllabus  seems  to  have 
arrived;  such  would  doubtless  help  in  making  civics  more  prominent 
in  the  school  course. 

Submitted  by  J.  F.  Thomason,  Chairman. 


ILLINOIS 
A.  Elementary  Schools: 

Most  schools  teach  civics  in  some  form,  some  with  great  thorough- 
ness. In  a  few  cases  pamphlets  on  community  civics  have  been  com- 
piled by  local  teachers.  These  are  used  in  class  work,  sometimes 
independently,  but  more  often  in  connection  with  other  subjects. 
The  gratifying  fact  is  that  all  feel  the  necessity  of  civics  teaching. 
At  present,  however,  there  is  no  uniformity  of  method  or  material. 
In  many  cases  it  amounts  to  "incidental  instruction  in  civics  through- 
out the  grades  in  connection  with  other  subjects." 

The  time  is  ripe  for  organization  of  material  and  the  establishment 
of  standards  of  method.  There  is  an  evident  breaking  away  from 
the  formal  teaching  of  government  as  teachers  and  superintendents 
grasp  and  appreciate  the  rich  content  of  the  "new  civics."  The 
greatest  need,  probably,  is  for  comprehensive  outlines  or  syllabi  for 
the  use  of  the  grades  of  city  schools.  In  the  absence  of  any  system, 
genuinely  efficient  work  is  being  done  only  here  and  there  where  there 
happens  to  be  a  well-trained  and  enthusiastic  teacher. 


APPENDIX  241 

B.  Secondary  Schools: 

This  report  of  the  Illinois  committee  is  based  on  the  replies  to  a 
questionnaire  received  from  fifty-nine  of  the  foremost  high  schools  of 
the  state. 

Five  schools  attempt  to  teach  civics  in  the  first  and  second  years  of 
high  school.  The  reason  is  that  many  students  do  not  remain  longer 
in  high  school.  They  must  be  reached  there  if  at  all.  These  schools 
also  teach  advanced  civics  in  the  fourth  year. 

Forty-seven  high  schools  teach  separate  courses  in  civics,  while 
eleven  report  a  combination  of  history  and  civics.  Several  schools, 
particularly  Chicago  high  schools,  teach  both  separate  and  com- 
bined courses.  Thirty-eight  make  civics  an  elective,  while  twenty- 
one  report  it  required.  In  a  few  schools  civics  is  required  only  in 
certain  courses.  All  but  one  offer  the  subject  five  hours  a  week.  Only 
two  report  a  term  of  forty  weeks.  Fourteen  offer  twenty  weeks; 
twenty-two,  eighteen  weeks;  while  in  two  or  three,  ten  or  twelve 
weeks  are  given.  One  semester  is  the  prevailing  term.  Six  offer  com- 
bined United  States  history  and  civics. 

The  following  texts  are  reported  used:  by  seventeen  schools,  Garner; 
fourteen  schools,  James  and  Sanford;  sixteen,  Forman;  five,  Guitteau; 
three,  Beard;  three,  Ashley.  In  reference  books  Childs  leads  with 
thirteen,  and  there  follow  James  and  Sanford,  Ashley,  Guitteau, 
Garner,  Forman,  Kaye,  Bryce,  Beard,  Fiske,  Fairlie,  Hinsdale, 
etc. 

Concerning  the  defects  of  present  texts  in  government  the  following 
replies  were  made:  wanting  in  practical  and  concrete  illustrations; 
too  much  material  on  national  government;  too  little  on  local  govern- 
ment; too  much  emphasis  on  form  of  government;  too  much  emphasis 
on  history  of  government;  lack  of  detailed  explanation,  too  little 
emphasis  on  duties  and  obligations  of  citizens;  formal,  lacks  inspira- 
tion, not  lucid;  not  enough  emphasis  on  functions;  too  dry;  too 
academic;  need  more  outlines  and  maps;  lack  of  laboratory  methods 
and  practical  lessons;  not  enough  material  on  administration;  not 
teachable  for  freshmen;  too  much  theory;  too  technical.  Summarizing, 
these  replies  evidently  mean  that  the  texts  are  too  largely  given  to  the 
organization  and  machinery  of  government,  and  far  too  little  to  the 
functions  of  local  government.  Teachers  have  not  time  to  organize 
supplementary  material  and  quite  generally  have  not  had  sufficient 
training  to  write  out  comprehensive  outlines  or  develop  a  syllabus. 
The  time  is  opportune  for  such  a  syllabus.  .  .  .  The  spirit  of  teachers, 
superintendents,  and  the  public  is  ripe  for  its  use.  Any  increase  hi 


242  APPENDIX 

reference  books  will  not  serve  to  increase  the  efficiency  of  civics  teach- 
ing in  the  absence  of  syllabi  that  organize  the  subject  and  make  it 
teachable. 

Twenty-four  schools  reply  that  the  time  allotment  should  be  ex- 
tended, and  twenty-four  that  it  should  not.  While  a  few  ask  for  a  full 
year,  the  great  majority  asks  for  one  full  semester  of  eighteen  or 
twenty  weeks.  Schools  answering  that  time  should  not  be  extended 
are  now  offering  as  much  as  that.  To  find  time  for  the  increase  is 
difficult.  Two  would  omit  ancient  history.  A  few  suggest  cutting 
ancient  history  to  one  semester.  One  would  correlate  it  to  the  English 
theme  work.  Another  would  drop  part  of  the  Latin  course.  The  time 
allotment  usually  given  follows:  one-half  to  national,  one-fourth  to 
state,  and  one-fourth  to  local.  The  reason  most  frequently  given  is 
that  such  a  division  is  followed  in  the  text  used. 

Seventeen  schools  report  proceeding  from  local  to  state  and  na- 
tional civics,  and  eighteen  from  national  to  state  and  local.  The 
chief  reason  assigned  is  that  it  is  so  given  in  the  text  used.  Little 
improvement  may  be  expected  till  properly  organized  material  is  pro- 
vided to  be  placed  in  the  hands  of  the  student.  Eight  replied  that  the 
chief  emphasis  is  placed  on  the  operation  and  organization  of  govern- 
ment, twenty  that  the  chief  emphasis  is  placed  on  the  duties  and 
obligations  of  citizens  and  community  functions,  and  eight  that 
emphasis  is  equally  placed.  Even  in  the  case  of  the  twenty,  because 
of  the  want  of  organized  material,  it  may  be  doubted  if  the  chief 
emphasis  is  really  so  placed. 

Concerning  the  devices  used  in  teaching  civics,  sixteen  use  a  scrap 
book,  twenty-eight  have  weekly  drills  in  current  events,  twenty  hold 
debates  on  political  issues,  thirteen  report  reading  of  non-partisan 
periodicals  by  the  classes,  seventeen  provide  talks  to  the  classes  by 
public  officials,  and  several  have  civic  and  industrial  clubs.  Thirteen 
use  the  Literary  Digest,  eight  the  Independent,  four  the  Review  of 
Reviews,  etc.  Thirty-eight  schools  report  personal  field  investiga- 
tions by  students.  Such  investigations  are  sporadic  and  include 
chiefly  visits  to  institutions,  county  farms,  factories,  court  houses,  city 
council  chambers,  conventions,  etc. 

Forty-one  schools  report  no  system  of  student  self-government. 
Not  one  reports  a  thoroughgoing  system,  though  fourteen  report 
some  attempt  at  self-government  in  one  or  more  phases  of  school  life. 
Of  those  answering,  none  has  an  elaborated  system.  It  consists 
mainly  of  student  councils,  advisory  committees,  literary  and  athletic 
control,  council  to  control  corridors,  etc.,  class  boards  of  control.  All 


APPENDIX  243 

seven  report  it  an  advantage  in  discipline.    Some  have  "safety  first" 
commissions,  and  school  improvement  bureaus. 

The  aim  of  instruction  in  government  in  secondary  schools  is 
stated  thus:  to  train  good  citizens;  knowledge  of  government  ma- 
chinery; to  make  real  Americans — not  hyphens;  to  understand  social 
problems;  active  participation  in  community  life;  to  teach  problems  of 
good  citizens;  personal  responsibility  of  good  citizenship;  inspiration; 
interest  in  civic  affairs;  self-control. 

Seventeen  consider  their  courses  in  government  adequate.  The 
reasons  assigned  are:  because  it  is  practical;  relatively,  yes;  study 
present-day  civics  chiefly;  pupils  get  essentials;  adequate  as  a  formal 
course  can  be.  Of  the  thirty-five  reporting  their  courses  not  adequate, 
twenty-seven  state  that  it  is  because  of  lack  of  time.  Other  reasons 
stated  are:  too  much  text-book  work;  formal  civics  will  not  produce 
good  citizens;  inexperienced  teacher;  emphasize  local  government; 
not  enough  practical  work;  students  too  immature;  because  elective; 
one  semester  too  short  to  offset  the  influences  of  a  saloon  town; 
lack  of  preparation;  lack  of  reference  material — library;  lack  of 
facilities. 

A  majority  report  ample  collegiate  preparation.  Forty-two  teach- 
ers are  university  graduates;  ten  graduates  of  colleges,  and  five  are 
graduates  of  normal  schools.  Thirty-five  majored  in  history,  econom- 
ics, political  science,  or  social  science.  Three  minored  in  the  same. 
Two  had  graduate  courses.  Ten  had  taken  courses  in  education  in 
college  or  university. 

To  the  question  asking  for  suggestions  relative  to  ways  and  meth- 
ods by  which  instruction  in  civics  and  training  for  citizenship  may  be 
improved,  twenty-two  made  no  reply.  By  others  the  following  sug- 
gestions were  offered:  use  more  illustrative  material;  require  every 
high  school  graduate  to  have  it;  closer  contact  with  community  life; 
more  field  work;  a  real  man  teacher;  better  texts;  a  live  specialist; 
make  it  more  practical;  make  it  more  local;  concerted  action  by  col- 
leges and  secondary  schools  to  give  emphasis;  utilize  school  activities; 
more  time;  deal  with  living  problems;  arouse  personal  interest  of 
students;  should  be  in  freshman  year  to  catch  students  who  do  not 
finish  high  school;  use  of  magazines;  laboratory  course;  make  the  work 
for  laymen,  and  not  for  the  few  who  will  become  lawyers. 

What  is  needed  most  in  Illinois  is  a  suitable  syllabus  to  guide 
teachers  in  the  study  of  community  civics. 

Submitted  by  L.  A.  Fulwider,  Chairman. 


244  ,  APPENDIX 

IOWA 

Summary  of  data  collected: 

The  majority  of  the  schools  are  offering  the  work  in  the  last  year  of 
the  high  school.  Some  are  giving  the  work  in  the  third  year,  and  a  few 
in  the  first  year. 

The  number  of  weeks  given  is  mostly  eighteen,  or  one  semester. 
Some  schools  give  two  years,  but  they  are  divided  between  the  ninth 
year  and  the  twelfth  year.  Some  schools  give  but  nine  weeks. 

The  percentage  of  high  school  students  taking  government  is  from 
fourteen  to  seventeen  per  cent. 

The  text-books  in  use  are  Dunn,  Forman,  Guitteau,  James  &  San- 
ford,  Macy  &  Geiser,  and  a  few  others.  Of  these  Guitteau  leads  and 
James  &  Sanford  is  second. 

From  this  report  of  the  work  which  is  being  done  in  our  state,  it  is 
very  evident  that  a  great  deal  should  be  advised  along  the  line  of  in- 
struction in  government  for  the  high  school  curriculum. 

Under  the  guise  of  correlating  civil  government  with  history  and 
other  subjects  the  high  schools  are  practically  doing  nothing  in  the 
teaching  of  government.  It  seems  to  me  that  the  schools  should  be 
advised  first  to  change  their  plan  of  teaching  to  a  community  civics 
plan  and  to  carry  the  work  through  two  full  years  of  the  high  school, 
or  four  half  years  of  the  high  school. 

One  superintendent  who  is  now  teaching  civics  nine  weeks,  says  that 
it  will  be  impossible  to  get  any  more  time  in  his  school  for  civics. 

Submitted  by  A.  Palmer,  Chairman. 

KENTUCKY 

1.  No  syllabus  is  followed  either  in  common  or  high  schools  in 
teaching  civics.    The  teachers  in  the  main  have  no  guide  except  the 
suggestions  of  the  text-books  they  use.    The  committee  is  unanimous 
in  believing  a  good  syllabus  would  help  greatly  hi  getting  better  re- 
sults. 

2.  In  Kentucky  the  law  requires  that  civics  be  taught  in  both  the 
common  and  high  schools,  and  a  text-book  is  adopted  by  the  state  for 
the  rural  districts  and  smaller  towns.    The  larger  cities  are  allowed 
to  make  their  own  selections.    The  common  school  adopted  text  is 
Forman's  Essentials  in  Civil  Government;  the  adopted  high  school 
text  is  Stickles's  Elements  of  Government.    Some  of  the  other  text- 
books in  use  in  the  state  are  Dunn's  Community  and  Citizen,  Allen's 
Civics  and  Health,  in  the  grades,  and  Garner's  Government  in  the 


APPENDIX  245 

United  States,  and  Guitteau's  and  Hinsdale's  texts  in  the  high  school. 
It  is  a  lamentable  fact,  however,  that  many  cities  of  the  state  do  not 
offer  any  civics  course  in  their  high  schools. 

3.  When  a  text-book  in  civics  is  used  in  the  common  schools,  it  is 
always  in  the  upper  grades,  in  the  seventh  and  eighth.    The  grades 
below  these  get  practically  no  training  in  this  subject  at  all.    When 
they  do,  it  is  a  few  facts  poorly  correlated  with  other  subjects. 

4.  To  get  proper  instruction  in  civics  for  children  below  the  seventh 
grade,  and  to  reach  those  that  so  frequently  stop  school  before  reach- 
ing that  grade  is  a  hard  problem,  but  one  that  needs  attention  badly. 
The  committee  agreed  that  better  trained  teachers,  an  awakening 
to  the  importance  of  civics  as  a  subject  necessary  for  good  citizenship, 
a  good  syllabus  rich  in  suggestiveness,  civics  fitted  to  the  daily  life 
of  the  mass  of  children,  and  civics  connected  with  reading,  language, 
geography,  and  history — will  help  solve  the  problem. 

5.  The  committee  is  unanimous  in  asserting  that  the  teachers  in 
rural,  town,  and  city  schools  are  not  properly  prepared  to  do  effective 
work  in  civics  teaching.    In  fact,  very  few  in  Kentucky  are  prepared 
to  do  effective  work  at  present.    To  help  this  situation  it  is  recom- 
mended that  more  attention  be  paid  to  civics  in  our  colleges,  normal 
schools  and  high  schools,  that  the  "civic  viewpoint"  be  considered 
whenever  possible  in  history  and  geography  particularly,  and  in  any 
other  work  that  may  lend  itself  directly  to  training  for  intelligent  citi- 
zenship.  Laxity  in  the  granting  of  teachers'  certificates  is  undoubtedly 
another  reason  why  teachers  are  so  poorly  prepared.    Since  there  is 
little  interest  in  the  teaching  of  the  subject  well,  it  is  considered  al- 
most as  a  non-essential,  and  almost  everybody  applying  for  a  teacher's 
license  is  given  it  should  he  or  she  make  fairly  good  grades  in  other 
subjects. 

6.  In  a  few  towns  and  cities  teachers  use  magazines  and  daily 
papers  to  interest  pupils  in  current  events  and  civic  problems.    Many 
teachers  in  towns  and  cities  do  nothing  of  this  sort,  and  it  is  rarely 
done  in  rural  schools. 

7.  The  civics  taught  in  rural  or  city  schools  should  be  essentially 
the  same.    However,  since  a  large  part  of  rural  children  remain  as 
citizens  in  rural  communities,  while  they  need  to  know  the  general 
civic  problems  in  the  relation  in  which  city,  state,  and  nation  are  in- 
terested, need  to  have  greater  stress  placed  on  strictly  rural  problems. 

8.  Only  a  very  few  schoolhouses  comparatively  in  the  state  are 
used  as  social  centres.    This  movement  is  growing  with  the  training 
of  live  teachers  who  lead  and  direct  communities  to  the  school  where 


246  APPENDIX 

real  civic  problems  are  discussed.  An  aroused  interest  in  economic 
problems,  and  greater  activities  in  politics  as  well  as  in  better  schools, 
better  roads,  and  the  school  as  a  social  centre  will  in  turn  improve 
teaching  in  civics. 

9.  Other  suggestions  made  to  push  forward  better  civics  work  in 
our  public  schools  were:  Too  much  time  is  given  to  studying  the  ma- 
chinery of  government  of  the  past,  not  enough  to  political  and  social 
questions  of  study;  the  work  is  not  made  to  mean  more  civic  purity, 
more  obligations  and  duties  to  the  student  of  to-day;  cut  from  the  sub- 
ject as  much  of  the  technical  as  possible,  and  train  students  to  under- 
stand the  government  they  live  in. 

Submitted  by  A.  M.  Stickles,  Chairman. 

MAINE 

A.  The  Course: 

We  find  that  civics  is  taught  in  about  all  of  the  schools. 

There  are,  however,  a  few  of  the  very  smallest  schools  where  the  sub- 
ject is  not  included  owing  to  the  crowded  condition  of  the  curriculum. 
In  a  special  letter,  which  this  committee  will  soon  send  to  the  schools 
of  the  state,  we  shall  point  out  the  importance  of  this  work  and  rec- 
ommend that  a  place  be  made  for  it. 

In  practically  all  of  the  schools,  civics  is  taught  for  one-half  year. 
This  is  in  line  with  the  practice  of  the  larger  schools  and  is  probably  all 
that  can  be  expected  owing  to  the  crowded  condition  of  the  curriculum 
and  the  small  number  of  teachers. 

The  tendency  is  to  require  it  of  all  except  the  pupils  taking  the 
college  preparatory  course.  However,  there  are  yet  some  schools 
which  make  it  wholly  elective,  a  condition  which  we  believe  should  be 
remedied.  The  exception  in  the  case  of  college  preparatory  pupils 
is  evidently  due  to  the  necessity  of  using  all  available  time  for  prep- 
aration along  the  special  lines  required  by  the  colleges  and  is  fol- 
lowed by  the  larger  schools. 

The  general  rule  is  to  offer  it  in  the  last  two  years,  especially  the 
senior  year.  In  two  of  the  schools,  freshman  courses  are  attempted 
and  in  one  of  these  it  is  in  conjunction  with  another  course  during 
the  senior  year.  It  is  the  belief  of  this  committee  that  if  only  one 
course  can  be  given,  that  should  be  in  the  last  year.  However, 
we  believe  that  civics  on  the  "community  plan"  could  be  started 
in  the  grammar  grades  and  might  be  offered  to  high  school  fresh- 
men and  sophomores.  However,  we  do  not  feel  that  we  could  rec- 


APPENDIX  247 

ommend  that  it  be  required  of  the  lower  classmen  because  we  can- 
not see  where  a  place  could  be  made  for  it.  We  feel  that  community 
civics  for  the  younger  students  is  a  vital  problem.  However,  we  feel 
that  in  our  state,  the  first  problem  to  be  attacked  is  that  of  perfecting 
the  more  technical  course  for  the  upper  classes  and  that  the  commu- 
nity course  may  well  wait  until  we  get  the  higher  course  more  nearly 
perfected. 

We  regret  that  the  time  given  to  local  and  state  government  is 
very  small  except  in  the  larger  schools.  However,  we  feel  that  the 
reason  for  this  is  the  lack  of  material  on  those  subjects  as  applied 
directly  to  the  local  situation  and  a  general  lack  of  knowledge  as  to 
how  to  attack  these  phases.  We  feel  that  better  times  are  ahead. 
This  year  the  State  Department  of  Education  has  published  an  out- 
line for  the  study  of  state  and  local  government  prepared  by  Professor 
Orren  C.  Hormell  of  Bowdoin  College.  This  has  been  distributed 
throughout  the  state  and  this  committee  will  urge  its  use. 

In  the  teaching  of  current  events  the  work  attempted  is  gratifying. 
Most  of  our  schools,  even  the  smallest,  are  trying  to  do  something 
with  it.  The  success  of  the  course  depends  on  the  amount  of  time 
available  and  unfortunately  our  teachers  are  not  able  to  give  the  time 
which  is  necessary  for  the  best  results.  However,  they  are  alive  to  the 
value  of  this  work  and  a  good  start  has  been  made. 

B.  The  Equipment: 

The  text-books  are  in  some  cases  old  and  unsatisfactory.  How- 
ever, judging  from  the  majority  of  cases,  we  believe  that  the  teachers 
are  selecting  the  best  books  available  as  fast  as  they  are  able  to  intro- 
duce new  books. 

In  our  small  schools  there  is  very  little  additional  equipment;  in 
some  cases,  none.  Our  larger  schools  are  well  equipped.  I:  The  main 
recommendations  of  this  committee  will  be  for  better  equipment. 

In  conclusion,  we  wish  to  state  that  Maine  began  this  year  on  an 
active  campaign  for  better  civics  in  the  schools.  In  our  state  teachers' 
convention,  the  entire  meeting  of  the  principals  and  superintendents 
was  given  over  to  this  problem  and  the  matter  occupied  most  of  the 
time  in  the  meeting  of  the  teachers  of  history  and  civics.  The  State 
Department  of  Education  is  taking  an  active  part  as  is  shown  by  the 
outline  which  it  has  published.  This  committee  will  endeavor  to 
send  out  soon  a  special  letter  to  the  schools  of  the  state  containing 
recommendations  to  meet  our  peculiar  problems. 

Submitted  by  Fred  D.  Wish,  Chairman. 


248  APPENDIX 

MARYLAND 

A.  Elementary  Schools: 

The  elementary  schools,  as  well  as  the  high  schools,  in  all  the 
counties  of  Maryland  follow  the  course  of  study  laid  down  by  the 
State  Board  of  Education.  This  course  of  study  contains  an  outline 
for  the  teaching  of  government,  beginning  with  the  first  grade.  The 
two  subjects,  history  and  government,  are  grouped  together  under  the 
general  head  of  conduct,  and  it  is  assumed  that  the  two  will  be  taught 
in  a  closely  connected  way  throughout  the  seven  years  of  the  ele- 
mentary course.1  A  questionnaire  relative  to  the  use  of  the  state 
course  of  study  brought  the  following  results: 

Replies  were  received  from  twelve  of  the  twenty-three  county 
superintendents  of  the  state,  and  also  from  the  superintendent  of  the 
Baltimore  City  Schools. 

Two  of  the  twelve  county  superintendents  heard  from,  failed  to 
reply  as  to  the  use  of  the  state  course,  and  one  expressly  asked  to  be 
excused  from  giving  an  opinion  on  any  of  the  points  included  in  the 
questionnaire.  Three  were  decidedly  of  the  opinion  that  the  course 
was  not  practicable  for  the  country  schools,  and  two  of  these  gave  a 
negative  answer  also,  in  regard  to  the  town  schools.  The  third  thought 
it  practicable  for  the  upper  grades  of  the  town  schools.  Two  admitted 
that  the  plan  was  followed  only  to  a  limited  extent  in  both  their 
country  and  their  town  schools.  Of  the  remaining  four,  one  con- 
siders the  course  impracticable  for  the  lower  grades  in  both  country 
and  town  schools;  another  answers  that  "it  depends  on  the  teacher  in 
both  rural  and  town  schools,"  and  says  that  little  is  done  in  the  lower 
grades  in  his  schools;  another  replies,  "I  think  it  can  be  made  prac- 
ticable in  the  country  schools  by  correlating  it  with  other  subjects  and 
I  see  no  reason  why  it  cannot  be  made  entirely  practicable  for  the 
town  schools";  the  last  says,  "The  outline  seems  a  little  too  full  for 
the  country  schools,  but  seems  well  adapted  to  the  town  schools." 

In  reply  to  the  inquiry  as  to  the  extent  to  which  the  plan  outlined  in 
the  course  of  study  is  actually  carried  out  in  (a)  the  country  schools, 
and  (b)  the  town  schools,  not  one  of  the  superintendents  was  able  to 
say  that  the  course  was  being  closely  followed  in  either  class  of  schools 
in  his  county.  The  most  of  the  replies  indicate  that  very  little  is  being 
done  except  in  the  higher  grades.  The  principal  reasons  given  for  the 
failure  of  the  country  schools  to  carry  out  the  course  as  laid  down  are: 

1  For  a  copy  of  this  outline  write  to  the  State  Board  of  Education. 


APPENDIX  249 

(i)  lack  of  time;  (2)  poorly-trained  teachers;  (3)  too  many  women 
teachers. 

The  superintendents  are  practically  unanimous  in  saying  that  the 
main  emphasis  should  be  placed  upon  the  duties  and  obligations  of 
citizens  and  community  functions  rather  than  upon  the  organization 
and  operation  of  government. 

B.  Secondary  Schools: 

There  are  twenty-nine  high  schools  of  the  first  group  (four-year 
course)  and  thirty-six  of  the  second  group  (three-year  course).  Replies 
to  the  questionnaire  have  been  received  from  eleven  high  schools  of 
the  first  group,  and  from  ten  of  the  second  group.  These  schools 
represent  fourteen  counties  of  the  twenty-three  in  our  state.  Replies 
were  also  received  from  one  of  the  Baltimore  city  high  schools,1  and 
from  the  state  normal  school  in  Baltimore. 

The  course  of  study  laid  down  for  high  schools  of  the  first  group  by 
the  State  Board  of  Education  prescribes  a  course  in  civics  and  United 
States  history  for  all  pupils  of  the  fourth-year  class.  Four  to  five 
periods  a  week  throughout  the  year  are  required,  the  principal  having 
the  option  of  combining  the  history  and  civics,  or  of  taking  them  up 
separately,  devoting  one-half  of  the  year  to  each.  The  majority  of 
schools  reporting  combine  civics  with  history.  In  the  second  group 
schools  there  is  less  uniformity  of  procedure,  but  apparently  a  fair 
amount  of  time  is  being  given  to  the  subject. 

Again  the  text-books  used  are  Phillips'  Nation  and  State,  Dole's 
Civics,  Guitteau's  Government  and  Politics  in  the  United  States, 
Boynton's  Civics,  Fiske's  Civil  Government,  and  Steiner's  Institutions 
and  Constitution  of  Maryland.  Among  those  used  for  supplementary 
purposes  are  Ashley's  Ajnerican  Government,  James  and  Sanford's 
Government  in  State  and  Nation,  Bryce's  American  Commonwealth, 
and  some  of  the  texts  already  named. 

It  is  generally  agreed  that  the  time  devoted  to  civics  in  our  high 
schools  should  be  greatly  increased.  Some  think  that  the  present 
allotment  should  be  doubled;  others,  that  it  should  be  increased  to  an 
even  greater  extent.  Several  of  our  most  progressive  principals  sug- 
gest cutting  down  the  amount  of  time  devoted  to  foreign  languages 
and  mathematics  in  order  to  find  time  and  place  for  the  increase. 
It  is  the  opinion  of  your  committee  that  the  greatest  defect  in  our 
course  is  the  fact  that  the  instruction  in  civics  is  relegated  to  the  last 

1  Baltimore  has  a  school  system  independent  of  State  Board  of  Educa- 
tion. 


250  APPENDIX 

year  of  the  course.  As  probably  not  more  than  twenty  per  cent  of  the 
pupils  who  enter  our  high  schools  remain  until  the  fourth  year,  it  will 
readily  be  seen  that  some  change  should  be  made  that  will  open  up  the 
instruction  in  civics  to  the  great  mass  of  our  pupils.  This,  we  believe, 
can  be  done  by  cutting  down  the  required  work  in  foreign  languages 
and  mathematics  and  giving  at  least  two  periods  per  week  in  civics 
to  all  first  year  pupils. 

In  most  of  our  schools  the  greater  part  of  the  time  allotted  to  civics 
is  given  to  national  government,  and  the  procedure  is  from  national  to 
state  and  local.  A  great  many  of  the  teachers  seem  to  realize  that 
they  are  wrong  on  both  these  points,  some  placing  the  blame  upon  the 
text-books,  others,  upon  the  supervisors. 

In  many  of  our  schools  the  main  emphasis  in  teaching  civics  is  still 
placed  upon  the  organization  and  operation  of  government  rather 
than  upon  the  duties  and  obligations  of  citizens  and  community 
functions.  Yet  most  of  our  teachers  seem  to  feel  that  the  latter  is  the 
proper  aim  and  are  striving  to  adapt  their  instruction  to  that  end  as 
rapidly  as  possible. 

With  regard  to  the  use  of  special  devices  to  supplement  their  formal 
instruction,  our  civics  teachers  seem  to  be  encouragingly  progressive. 
Many  use  the  civics  scrap  book  and  a  regular  drill  in  current  events. 
A  number  have  debates  on  political  issues,  which  are  used  as  a  means 
of  correlating  civics  and  oral  English.  Almost  all  have  non-partisan 
periodicals  for  the  use  of  their  pupils.  The  Outlook,  The  Independent, 
Current  Events,  and  the  Literary  Digest  are  the  ones  most  commonly 
used.  In  one  or  two  schools  public  officials  frequently  make  addresses 
to  civics  classes  concerning  applied  politics.  In  several  of  our  schools 
the  civics  classes  visit  court  houses  and  city  council  chambers. 

In  but  few  of  our  schools  is  local  government  made  a  subject  of 
personal  field  investigation  by  the  pupils,  nor  is  much  done  in  the  way 
of  studying  annual  appropriation  bills,  health  reports,  etc.  Little  is 
done  in  making  surveys.  Your  committee  is  of  the  opinion  that  at  the 
present  time  work  of  this  kind  cannot  be  done  to  advantage  by  our 
high  school  pupils. 

Systems  of  student  self-government  seem  to  have  been  but  little 
tried  in  our  state.  One  of  our  principals,  who  has  had  experience  in 
other  states,  expresses  the  opinion  that  the  School  City  is  usually  a 
failure.  Only  one  principal  expresses  a  favorable  opinion  on  this  sub- 
ject, and  it  is  interesting  to  observe  that  this  teacher  is  a  very  young 
man  and  of  limited  experience. 

In  regard  to  what  should  be  the  aim  of  instruction  in  civics  in  sec- 


APPENDIX  251 

ondary  schools,  our  teachers  are  generally  agreed  that  the  main 
object  should  be  training  in  the  duties  of  citizenship,  rather  than  a 
knowledge  of  the  dry  facts  and  technical  details  of  our  system  of 
government.  They  also  agree  that  civics  should  occupy  a  more 
prominent  place  in  the  curriculum.  Very  few  consider  our  present 
course  adequate  for  giving  our  pupils  the  proper  training  in  citizenship. 
Practically  all  think  that  our  greatest  need  in  order  to  improve  our 
work  is  an  increased  allotment  of  time. 

Generally  speaking,  our  instructors  in  civics  may  be  said  to  be 
reasonably  well  qualified.  Most  of  them  are  college  graduates  who 
have  specialized  in  history  and  government,  and  a  number  have 
taken  advanced  work,  as  a  rule,  at  summer  sessions  at  the  great 
universities. 

In  only  five  towns  out  of  the  twenty-one  from  which  we  have  heard 
is  any  kind  of  cooperation  reported  as  existing  between  the  school  and 
civic  or  commercial  organizations.  In  two  towns  there  are  women's 
civic  leagues  which  have  cooperated  with  the  school  authorities  in 
improving  conditions. 

Instruction  in  the  Baltimore  high  schools  is  similar  to  that  of  our 
first  group  high  schools.  In  the  Baltimore  state  normal  school  more 
time  is  given  to  the  subject  than  in  our  first  group  high  schools,  and 
the  work  seems  to  be  done  in  a  much  more  effective  way.  Forman's 
Advanced  Civics  is  the  text  used,  and  Hart  is  employed  for  supple- 
mentary purposes.  The  method  of  procedure  is  from  local  to  state 
and  national,  and  the  main  emphasis  is  placed  upon  the  duties  and 
obligations  of  citizens  and  community  functions. 

Submitted  by  C.  H.  Kolb,  Chairman. 

MASSACHUSETTS 

Questionnaire  sent  to  Answers  received 
Public  high  schools                               258  141 

Private  high  schools  7  2 

Private  schools  (boys)  39  22 

Private  schools  (girls)  36  14 

Private  schools  (coeducational)  6  4 

346  183 

Schools  reporting  no  courses  given: 
Elementary  private  schools         8 
Public  high  schools  ,        5 

Advanced  private  schools  6 


252  APPENDIX 

Answers  to  Questions: 

1.  What  courses  in  civics  are  given  in  the  elementary  grades? 

No  answer  44 

Yes  33 

None  in  school  57 

With  United  States  history     14 
With  general  courses  5 

No  grades  in  school  6 

The  7th,  8th  and  gth  grades  are  specified.  The  gth  or  last  year 
of  elementary  work  usually  has  the  preference. 

2.  What  courses  in  civics  are  given  in  the  first  two  years  of  the  high 

or  preparatory  school? 
None  75 

Yes  9 

Community  civics  62 

With  American  history         10 

Usually  for  one-half  year  or  twenty  weeks.  The  courses  range 
from  five  hours  a  week  for  the  year  to  three  hours  a  week  for 
the  half  year. 

3.  In  the  second  two  years  of  the  same? 

None  1 8 

Yes  32 

Advanced  civics  26 

With  United  States  history  76 

College  preparation  4 

General  courses  7 

i.  e.,  economics,  current  events,  informal  talks,  etc. 
Usually  found  in  fourth  year  and  as  a  half  course. 

4.  Do  you  distinguish  between  the  framework  of  government  and  the 

community  or  social  civics  which  treats  of  the  functions  of  gov- 
ernment? 

Yes  103 

No  13 

No  answer  14 

Both  treated  22 

Framework  only  3 

Community  civics  only  2 

Usually  find  first  two  years  devoted  to  community  civics  and  last 
two  devoted  to  the  framework. 

5.  What  books  are  in  use?    State  title  and  author. 

None  13 


APPENDIX  253 

Dunn — Community  and  the  Citizen  64 

Guitteau — Government  and  Politics  in  U.  S.  34 

Fiske — Civil  Government  33 

Ashley — American  Government  23 

Boynton — School  Civics  12 

James  and  Sanford — Government  in  State  and  Nation  10 

Martin — Elements  of  Civil  Government  10 

Garner — Government  of  the  United  States  8 

Nida — City,  State,  and  Nation  6 

Beard — American  Citizenship  6 

Guitteau — Preparing  for  Citizenship  5 

Forman — Advanced  Civics  4 

American  Republic  3 

Elementary  Civics  2 
A  few  others  are  mentioned  once  or  twice. 

Periodicals: 

Survey,  Literary  Digest,  Outlook,  Independent,  Review  of  Re- 
views. 

6.  What  form  of  syllabus  is  used? 

No  answer  41 

None  43 

Bulletin  No.  23  U.  S.  Department  Education  35 

Teachers'  own  22 

New  England  History  Teachers'  Association  8 

Found  in  text-book  6 
Others  mentioned  at  least  once: 
Hill,  Butler,  Hart,  consular  reports. 

7.  What  methods  of  instruction  are  employed? 

No  answer  34 

Text  and  recitations  56 

Local  investigation,  trips,  reports  75 

Collateral  reading  13 

Discussion  on  practical  subjects  32 

Notebooks  compiled  from  reports  and  newspapers,  etc.  1 1 

Debates  and  forum  n 

Topical  assignments  10 

Lectures  by  public  men  n 

Informal  talks  to  school  7 

Magazine  assignments  and  discussion  6 

Laboratory  method  6 


254  APPENDIX 

Current  events  discussed  5 

Self-governing  organizations  3 

Cooperation  with  English  department  i 

Cooperation  with  town  departments  i 

8.  Are  the  teachers  required  to  have  any  preparation  for  this  work? 

No  answer  18 

None  required  50 

Preparation  required  (not  specified)  51 

General  preparation  23 

College  preparation  5 

Wide  preparation  4 

Assumed  3 

9.  What  suggestions  or  recommendations  would  you  make  for  broad- 

ening the  usefulness  of  this  subject? 
None,  73 

Closer  to  community  life. 

Marked  emphasis  on  personal  citizenship  and  its  obligations. 
Personal  service  and  observation. 
Compulsory  attendance  at  town  meetings,  courts,  etc. 
Sense  of  responsibility  encouraged. 
More  emphasis  for  those  who  do  not  attend  college. 
Clearing  house  in  state  for  distribution  of  information. 
Added  enthusiasm  of  teacher. 
Begin  in  elementary  school  and  continue  to  grave. 
More  conferences  for  teachers  of  the  subject. 
Required  in  every  high  school. 
Increase  to  full  college  entrance  unit. 
More  trained  teachers. 
More  college  courses  for  training  of  teachers. 
Extended  use  of  public  night  schools  in  citizenship. 
Live  teachers — less  text-book. 
More  text-book. 

Extended  use  of  Bulletin  No.  23. 
Text-book  based  on  Bulletin  No.  23. 
Increased  sources  of  information. 
Extended  use  of  survey  of  conditions. 
More  laboratory  work. 
More  home  discussion. 
Self-government  in  every  school. 
Explanatory  speeches  by  officials  of  the  town  or  city. 
More  time,  broader  scope,  larger  emphasis,  compulsory,  etc. 


APPENDIX  255 

Correlate  with  other  subjects. 
Less  technical  language. 
Text-books  to  fit  local  conditions. 
Protection  of  teachers  from  political  pressure. 
More  emphasis  on  economics  or  sociology. 
Remove  it  from  lower  grades  in  small  schools  in  country  dis- 
tricts. 
Colleges  demand  framework — schools  teach  social  aspect. 

Submitted  by  E.  W.  Cottrell,  State  Representative. 

MICHIGAN 

Twenty-eight  schools  reporting. 

Number  enrolled  in  these  schools  12,782. 

In  what  year  of  school  is  government  taught? 

Twenty-five  teach  civics  in  the  fourth  year  of  high  school. 

One  in  the  second  year. 

One  in  the  third  year. 

One  in  the  third  or  fourth  year. 
Number  of  hours  per  week: 

One  reports  eight  hours  per  week. 

Twenty-four  report  five  hours  per  week. 

Two  report  four  hours. 

One  three  hours. 
Number  of  weeks  in  the  course: 

Two  report  six  weeks. 

Two  ten  weeks. 

Four  twelve  weeks. 

One  fourteen  weeks. 

One  sixteen  weeks. 

One  nineteen  weeks. 

Seven   '       twenty  weeks. 

One      "      thirty-two  weeks. 

Five      "      thirty-eight  weeks. 

Three   '       forty  weeks. 

One      "      forty-eight  weeks. 
It  is  difficult  to  draw  conclusions  from  the  above  report  on  the  number 

of  weeks  in  the  courses  as  there  was  some  confusion  in  regard  to 

what  was  meant  by  a  separate  or  combined  course.    I  think  that 

some  of  the  longer  courses  include  the  whole  course  where  two 

terms  were  given  to  history  and  then  one  term  devoted  to  civics 


256  APPENDIX 

alone.    Some  called  such  an  arrangement  a  combined  history 

and  civics  course. 
Is  government  required  or  elective? 

Twelve  report  required  with  an  enrollment  of  907  in  classes  now. 

Eleven  report  elective  with  an  enrollment  of  362  in  classes  now. 

Total  enrollment  of  those  in  classes  now  1,269, nve  schools  do  not 

report  on  this  point. 
Is  the  course  in  civics  separate  or  combined  with  history? 

Nine  report  that  the  course  is  separate. 

Twenty-one  report  that  the  course  is  combined  with  history., 
What  text-book  do  you  use,  if  any? 

One  reports'  Forman,  Advanced  Civics. 

Two  report  Forman,  The  American  Republic. 

Two  report  Garner,  Government  in  the  United  States. 

Nine  report  Guitteau,  Government  and  Politics  in  the  United 
States. 

One  reports  Hinsdale,  American  Government. 

One  reports  Haskins,  American  Government. 

Seven  report  James  and  Sanford,  Government  in  State  and  Na- 
tion. 

Seven  report  that  they  do  not  use  a  text-book. 
One  school  gives  a  course  entirely  different  from  the  rest.    Detroit 
Central  High  School  devotes  its  whole  twenty  weeks  of  government  to 
the  study  of  city  problems.    No  national  or  state  civics  are  taught, 
and  but  two  weeks  to  the  organization  of  the  city  government  and  all 
the  rest  to  city  problems. 
What  are  the  supplementary  books  used?   Among  those  in  use  are: 

Ashley,  American  Government. 

Bryce,  American  Commonwealth. 

Forman,  Advanced  American  Government. 

Garner,  Government  in  the  United  States. 

Guitteau,  Government  and  Politics  in  the  United  States. 

Haskins,  American  Government. 
What  are  the  principal  defects  in  the  present  text-books? 

Six  report  that  they  are  not  practical  enough.   Too  much  theory 
of  government. 

Five  report  that  they  are  dead  and  formal. 

Four  report  that  there  is  too  little  local  government. 

Three  report  that  there  is  not  enough  about  present-day  problems, 
social  and  economic. 

Two  report  that  they  are  not  accurate. 


APPENDIX  257 

Two  report  that  there  is  much  detail  about  the  government,  but 
not  enough  about  the  workings  of  the  government  as  a  whole. 

Two  report  that  they  are  very  satisfactory.    There  are  many 
excellent  texts. 

One  reports  that  they  are  not  scholarly.   They  make  a  cheap  bid 
for  popularity. 

One,  not  up  to  date. 

One,  not  "dynamic,"  whatever  that  may  mean. 

One,  indefinite,  language  hard  for  the  students  to  understand. 
I  notice  some  tendency  for  teachers  to  be  influenced  by  the  par- 
ticular book  they  are  using.     If  they  like  it,  all  books  seem  good, 
if  not,  civics  text-books  are  pretty  bad. 

Does  government  get  a  fair  allotment  of  time  compared  with  other 
studies? 

Four  said  it  does. 

One  said  it  depended  on  the  teacher. 

Twenty  said  it  does  not. 

Three  did  not  report  on  this  point. 
Time  allotment  for  different  phases  of  civics. 

In  combining  the  answers  to  this  question  I  find  that  national  gov- 
ernment gets  almost  half  the  time,  state  and  local  government,  the 
other  half. 
What  devices  are  used  to  supplement  regular  text-book  work? 

Ten  form  a  civic  scrap  book. 

Twenty-two  have  a  weekly  drill  in  current  events,  one  has  a 
monthly  drill  and  one,  a  daily  drill  in  current  events. 

Twenty-three  have  debates  on  political  issues. 

Nineteen  have  classes  read  non-partisan  periodicals. 

Fifteen  have  talks  to  classes  by  public  officials. 

Fourteen  visit  court  houses  and  city  officers  with  classes. 

Two  have  mock  city  councils. 

One  has  a  mock  court. 

Two  have  a  mock  senate. 

Two  have  mock  elections. 

Two  watch  the  enforcement  of  law  in  the  city. 
One  each  of  the  following: 

Visits  to  state  legislature. 

Visits  to  board  of  education. 

Student  house  of  representatives. 

Separate  class  in  magazine  reading. 

Good  citizenship  league. 


258  APPENDIX 

Names  of  periodicals  used  in  classes: 
One  uses  Current  Opinion. 
Seven,  The  Independent. 
Eight,  The  Literary  Digest. 
One,  The  New  York  Evening  Post. 
Three,  The  Outlook. 
One,  The  Survey. 
One,  World's  Work. 
Preparation  for  teaching  government. 
Schools  Attended: 
University  of  Michigan,  fourteen. 
University  of  Wisconsin,  one. 
Olivet  College,  four. 
Normal  College,  Ypsilanti,  two. 
University  of  Alabama,  one. 
Teachers'  College,  Columbia,  two.   ; 
University  of  Illinois,  one. 
University  of  Chicago,  one. 
Hillsdale  College,  Michigan,  one. 
Vassar  College,  one. 
Degrees  secured: 
Four,  A.  M. 
Thirteen,  A.  B. 
Two,  Ph.  B. 
One,  M.  S. 
One,  B.  S. 
One,  LL.  B. 
One,  B.  L. 
Twenty-three  out  of  twenty-eight  have  degrees  from  colleges  or 

universities  and  of  these,  six  have  degrees  in  advance  of  the 

bachelor's  degree. 
Of  these,  seventeen  have  specialized  in  history  and  government; 

one  each  in  history  and  English;  German  and  history;  law; 

science;  English  and  history. 

Submitted  by  Carl  E.  Pray,  State  Representative. 

NEW  HAMPSHIRE 
A.  Elementary  Schools: 

I.  The  state  department  is  now  at  work  upon  a  new  elementary 
program  which  will  be  issued  some  time  this  year. 
.  II.  The  elementary  schools  of  the  state  pay  special  attention  to 


APPENDIX  259 

civics  in  the  eighth  grade.    The  study  of  the  Constitution  of  New 
Hampshire  is  obligatory.    Other  topics  covered  are: 

1.  The  Constitution  and  Government  of  the  United  States.    This 
includes  the  work  of  the  great  departments. 

2.  Government  of  New  Hampshire.    Work  in  agriculture,  forestry, 
education,  etc. 

3.  Local  Government.   Administration  of  town  or  city  in  which  the 
pupil  lives. 

4.  Civics  of  the  schoolroom,  building,  and  playground. 

5.  Civics  of  the  family.    The  personal  virtues. 

B.  Secondary  Schools: 

i.  The  state  course  of  study  as  prepared  by  the  State  Department 
of  Public  Instruction  is  used  by  the  majority  of  the  secondary  schools. 
The  course  is  known  as  the  Constitutional  History  of  the  United 
States.  All  Seniors  are  required  to  take  the  course  for  the  entire  year, 
four  periods  per  week  of  at  least  forty  minutes  each. 

Various  additional  lines  of  study  are  employed  to  give  special 
interest  and  instruction  to  particular  topics,  as: — 

Class  organization  into  house  of  Congress  or  state  legislatures  or 
town  meetings  where  the  actual  workings  of  these  bodies  are  par- 
ticipated in  by  the  entire  class,  bills  are  passed  or  deliberated  upon. 

Debates  on  current  events. 

The  local  city  government  is  dramatized  in  each  school  and  local 
conditions  discussed. 

Courts  are  organized  and  trials  conducted. 

Athletic  organizations  and  other  school  societies  are  taught  to 
conduct  their  elections  upon  the  basis  of  a  political  campaign. 

Field  work  includes  visits  to  city  and  town  offices,  consultation  of 
records;  attendance  at  municipal  meetings. 

Library  instruction  is  gained  through  constant  study  of  topics  for 
investigation  by  individuals  with  reports  both  oral  and  written. 

Emphasis  is  laid  upon  the  ability  of  each  pupil  to  stand  and  speak 
fluently  upon  all  topics  under  discussion. 

C.  Normal  Schools: 

Neither  of  the  schools  offers  a  distinct  course  in  civics.  The  state 
program  is  followed,  and  the  prospective  teachers  are  taught  to  use 
it  in  the  practice  schools. 

Submitted  by  Guy  E.  Speare,  Chairman. 


260  APPENDIX 

NEW  YORK 

1.  Course  of  Study: 

In  New  York  state  the  civics  course  is  combined  with  American 
history  in  the  fourth  year  of  high  school.  Together  they  get  38  weeks, 
in  some  schools  of  four  periods,  in  most  of  five.  Of  this  time,  in  prac- 
tically every  school  less  than  30%  is  given  to  civics  alone,  partly  be- 
cause in  the  examination  most  weight  has  generally  been  given  to 
history.  One  might  add,  too,  most  teachers  flounder  when  they  get 
beyond  the  rule  of  a  compendious  text-book,  and  limit  the  subject 
to  the  material  that  demands  of  them  the  least  physical  and  mental 
exertion.  Naturally  that  material  is  text-book  material. 

2.  (a)  Text-books: 

Without  setting  down  a  compilation  more  valuable  for  advertising 
purposes  than  for  real  enlightenment  on  the  respective  merit  of  the 
text-books,  we  may  say  that  chief  mention  was  made  of  Guitteau, 
Ashley,  Forman,  James  and  Sanford,  Garner,  Boynton,  Hoxie  and 
Sullivan,  the  last  three  dealing  especially  with  New  York  state. 

(b)  Supplementary  Works: 

Congressional  Record,  City  Record,  Bryce,  Beard — American  Gov- 
ernment and  Politics,  Beard — Readings  in  American  Government  and 
Politics,  Reinsch — Readings,  Kaye — Readings,  several  numbers  of 
the  Brooklyn  Eagle  library  including  the  City  Charters,  Tenement 
House  Laws,  etc.,  Federal  documents  such  as  the  Year  Book  of  the 
Department  of  Agriculture,  Almanacs  (for  statistical  abstracts), 
state  documents,  publications  of  city  departments,  etc.  The  Munici- 
pal Year  Book  of  New  York  City  for  1912  is  often  mentioned.  That 
of  1915,  just  out,  is  far  better,  and  will  probably  be  used  extensively. 
Such  magazines  as  The  Outlook,  Literary  Digest,  etc.,  were  often 
spoken  of,  and  more  rarely  newspapers.  Proceedings  of  legislative 
bodies  were  also  listed. 

3.  Defects  of  Text-books: 

As  to  the  faults  of  text-books  several  teachers  called  attention  to 
their  emphasis  on  the  organization  rather  than  on  the  operations  of 
government.  Some  stated  that  "  they  lack  an  interesting  presentation 
of  the  subject "  but  neglected  to  say  in  what  respect.  One  might 
deduce  from  other  answers  that  this  was  due  to  the  purely  bookish 
character  of  the  presentation,  which  failed  to  set  problems,  the  great- 
est aid  to  interest.  It  is  objected  that  text-books  lay  stress  on  ma- 


APPENDIX  261 

chinery  rather  than  functions;  that  they  lack  concrete  Illustration  as 
to  the  actual  work  done  by  various  officials.  In  fact  the  feeling  seems 
to  be  that  the  text-book  makers  are  in  the  conspiracy  to  render 
government  "invisible" — certainly  opaque. 

4.  Distribution  of  Time  to  National,  State  and  Local  Government: 
The  answers  here  were  few  and  disappointing.    In  the  main  the  pre- 
ponderance of  time  was  given  to  national  government,  although  some 
regret  was  expressed  that  more  could  not  be  spent  on  local.    The 
average  proportion  of  time  was  20  periods  to   federal  government, 
20  to  state,  and  10  to  local,  with  the  understanding  that  a  good  deal 
of  federal  civics  had  been  taught  along  the  way  with  American  history. 

5.  Order  of  Procedure: 

The  majority  began  with  local  government,  although  the  order  was 
sometimes  varied  to  fit  the  text-books.  The  syllabus  for  New  York 
state  suggests  going  from  local  through  state  to  federal.  Yet  one  of 
our  best  text-books  on  state  and  local  government  proceeds  from 
state  to  local,  with  gratifying  results. 

On  the  whole  the  answer  seems  to  be  that  the  order  should  be 
natural,  proceeding  from  the  material  and  not  the  text-book.  Chap- 
ters for  a  good  text-book  can  make  any  order  logical.  For  if  instruc- 
tion is  only  from  a  text-book  how  is  local  government  any  nearer 
than  national? 

Let  us  assume,  however,  that  we  do  really  objective  teaching — 
that  we  treat  the  text  as  a  manual  for  occasional  reference  on  the 
forms  of  government,  so  that  the  pupil  can  organize  his  real  data — 
the  road  he  sees  being  built  or  the  quarantine  sign  on  the  door  or  the 
notice  of  the  sheriff's  sale  on  the  telegraph-pole,  then  the  thing  he 
sees  first,  probably  facts  of  local  government,  will  furnish  his  best 
point  of  approach  to  his  new  subject. 

6.  Devices  to  Supplement  Civics  Teaching,  such  as: 

(a)  A  civics  scrap  book. 

(b)  Weekly  drill  in  current  events. 

(c)  Debates  on  political  issues. 

(d)  Reading  of  a  non-partisan  periodical  by  class. 

(e)  Talks  to  classes  by  public  officials  concerning  applied  poli- 
tics. 

(f)  Mention  any  other  devices  used  to  supplement  formal  in- 
struction in  classes. 


262  APPENDIX 

(a)  Several  answered  yes — composed  of  clippings   (filibustering, 
home  rule  in  cities),  of  accounts  of  visits  to  public  institutions,  and  of 
study  of  budget  reports,  etc. 

(b)  Often  engaged  in — but  not  in  any  formal  way. 

(c)  Generally  done,  although  it  would  seem  that  this  work  should  be 
standardized  in  cooperation  with  the  English  department,  which 
emphasizes  argumentation  in  the  year  civics  is  studied.    In  one  school 
it  was  the  custom  for  the  civics  teacher  to  supervise  the  compilation 
of  material  for  debates,  giving  credit  for  it,  whereas  the  English  de- 
partment rated  it  on  form  and  style. 

(d)  Gratifyingly  the  rule.   Many  of  these  have  been  named  in  an- 
swer to  (2).    One  might  suggest  that  newspapers  deserve  a  better  trial 
than  they  have  received.    These  are,  if  you  rule  out  inspired  articles 
and  editorials,  and  accept  press  reports,  real  sources  on  civil  govern- 
ment, and  the  political  guide  of  the  average  voter.    One  teacher  used 
them,  explaining  how  his  first  attempt  to  distinguish  obiter  dicta 
from  real  news  was  most  satisfactory  in  that  the  same  article  was  pre- 
sented from  three  papers  of  widely  different  attitudes  on  every  ques- 
tion. 

(e)  Occasional.    In  New  York  City  the  pupils  are  addressed  by 
public  officials  from  the  health  and  police  departments  to  inspire 
them  with  a  spirit  of  cooperation  and  helpfulness  to  those  special  de- 
partments. 

(f)  Bulletin  boards,  visits  to  courts,  addresses  by  students  in  as- 
sembly, use  of  ballots  and  other  illustrative  material  in  class. 

7.  Personal  Field  Investigation,  Surveys  and  Study  of  Annual  Reports. 
The  answer  in  this  case  was  on  the  whole  negative  with  respect  to 

field  work.  The  city  schools  do,  however,  study  the  budget  and  many 
public  documents.  The  work  evidently  fails  because  it  is  not  syste- 
matic. Civic  publications  are  not  used  enough  when  we  consider  their 
accessibility  and  value.  The  problem  of  city  planning  is  touched  on 
by  some.  Others  require  a  comparison  of  receipts  and  expenditures 
for  local  state  and  federal  government,  and  with  a  justification  or  the 
reverse  of  the  relative  amounts  spent. 

8.  System  of  Student  Self -government: 

In  secondary  schools  there  is  little  of  self-government  and  no  in- 
stance of  its  thorough  application.  Yet  every  school  in  New  York 
City  has  some  form  of  it.  In  one  at  least  they  use  a  system  of  class 
captains  or  monitors  with  good  results.  In  every  one  there  is  some 


APPENDIX  263 

form  of  general  organization,  with  a  supervising  board  largely  repre- 
sentative, which  is  elected  under  regular  forms.  Formal  self-govern- 
ment is  treated  with  suspicion. 

9.  Special  Preparation  to  Teach  Civics: 

In  the  larger  cities,  especially  New  York,  special  training  seems  to 
be  the  rule.  In  smaller  communities  most  of  the  teachers  have  civics 
because  they  "fell  into  it"  as  the  tag  end  of  a  mixed  program.  Even 
in  normal  schools  civics  is  often  taught  by  a  German  or  mathematics 
teacher,  who  is  hired  for  his  ability  to  teach  these  subjects,  and  takes 
civics  because  there  is  not  enough  in  his  chosen  field  to  keep  him  busy. 

10.  General  Conclusions  of  the  Committee: 

It  is  not  so  much  a  syllabus  that  is  needed  as  a  method.  The  prob- 
lem differs  in  states,  cities  and  even  wards  of  a  city,  and  the  material 
at  hand  is  in  every  case  the  proper  material,  if  the  knowledge  to  be 
gained  is  to  be  actual  and  character  forming.  It  is  our  business  to 
take  this  accessible  material  and  bring  it  before  the  pupil,  that  by 
concrete  instruction  and  experience  he  may,  through  greater  interest, 
learn  better  and  perhaps  learn  more. 

As  for  our  opinion  on  the  questionnaires,  we  stand  united  on  all 
except  order  of  procedure  and  the  question  of  a  separate  course.  Our 
opinions  on  these  important  questions  are:  On  order  of  procedure  there 
was  a  close  division  as  to  whether  we  had  better  start  with  state  or 
federal  government.  It  was  decided  that  wherever  it  should  be  pos- 
sible to  get  100  periods  of  American  history  and  100  periods  of  civics, 
with  separate  examinations,  we  should  start  with  state  civics  but  in 
case  we  do  not  get  this  arrangement,  we  should  start  with  the  national 
government.  In  most  schools  in  the  first  term  of  the  senior  year, 
American  history  is  taught  down  to  1865.  At  the  beginning  of  the 
second  term  the  history  is  concluded  and  civics  at  once  started.  It 
seems  natural  to  take  national  government  in  that  event  first  since 
the  pupil  has  just  been  studying  its  history.  But  in  case  the  civics 
course  is  to  be  distinct  from  history,  the  order  should  be  state,  local 
and  national  since  the  state  is  the  source  of  all  local  authority  and  we 
must  derive  local  functions  from  delegation  on  the  part  of  the  state. 
Since  we  are  agreed  that  a  brief  -study  of  the  outline  of  the  organiza- 
tion of  government  and  a  consideration  of  some  of  its  underlying 
principles  should  be  given  to  the  pupil  to  make  his  work  on  the  details 
of  functions  coherent  and  intelligible,  we  decided  that  state  must  pre- 
cede local  in  any  event. 

We  voted  for  100  periods  of  each  with  distinct  examinations.    We 


264  APPENDIX 

felt  that  since  a  good  deal  of  history  since  1900  is  incidental  to  civics, 
the  history  could  be  covered  in  100  periods. 

We  wish  to  recommend  in  the  main  the  New  England  syllabus  with 
modifications  we  will  suggest  later. 

Submitted  by  Wm.  W.  Rogers,  Chairman. 

NORTH  DAKOTA 

1.  Practically  all  schools  follow  the  state  high  school  manual  and  the 

requirement  of  the  State  Board  of  Education,  5  hrs.,  18  wks., 
fourth  year  required  of  Seniors. 

2.  (a)  Text — Boyle,  James  E.,  Government  in  North  Dakota,  almost 

exclusively. 

3.  Criticisms  of  Text — Out  of  touch  with  life  as  a  boy  sees  it;  local 

government  overlooked. 

4.  Order  of  Procedure — National  to  state  and  local,  following  text: 

Session  of  Congress  or  legislature  influences  the  order. 

5.  Current  Events  are  widely  used  and  some  periodical  (Independent, 

Outlook,  Review  of  Reviews,  Current  Events,— daily  news- 
paper, etc.)  is  usually  read.  Officials  address  classes  here  and 
there.  Sometimes  reports  of  local  officials  are  used  and  their 
meetings  attended.  Reports  given  in  class  by  students.  Talks 
by  teacher  on  local  subjects  and  notes  taken  on  them.  Debates 
are  not  used  very  widely. 

6.  Practical  devices  and  personal  field  investigation  used  only  to  a 

limited  extent. 

7.  Is  present  instruction  regarded  satisfactory?    Yes.    Many,  how- 

ever, answer  "No"  because  of  inadequate  correlation  with  life. 

8.  Training  of  teachers.    No  special  preparation  generally. 

9.  Cooperation  with  public  officials  and  civic  agencies.    Half  answer 

none;  half  answer  that  bankers,  lawyers,  etc.,  address  the  class 
in  civics  at  times. 

Submitted  by  A.  T.  Vollweiler,  Chairman. 

OHIO 
A.  Elementary  Schools: 

A  state  law  requires  the  teaching  of  civics  in  the  elementary  schools 
in  connection  with  United  States  history.  In  most  schools,  the  pupils 
do  not  have  a  text-book  in  civics,  but  the  instruction  is  given  in  con- 
nection with  the  work  in  history. 

In  too  many  elementary  schools,  especially  in  the  rural  schools,  the 


APPENDIX  265 

attention  is  given  to  a  study  of  the  Federal  Constitution  and  the 
actual  work  done  by  the  government,  in  the  locality  where  the  child 
lives  is  neglected.  Very  often  the  teachers  of  history  have  had  little 
or  no  training  in  civics,  and  are  not  prepared  to  give  it  the  attention  it 
should  have.  In  a  graded  school  system  teachers  have  more  time  and 
usually  give  more  attention  to  it. 

The  appearance  of  some  elementary  books  dealing  with  the  actual 
working  of  governments  has  called  the  attention  of  teachers  to  this 
phase  of  the  work  and  they  are  giving  instruction  that  will  show  much 
better  results.  Teachers  are  giving  more  time  to  the  subject  now, 
than  formerly,  so  that  there  is  an  improvement  in  civics  teaching, 
throughout  the  state. 

B.  Secondary  Schools — (a)  Weak  Points: 

1.  In  many  secondary  schools,  the  text-books  in  use  are  rather 
inadequate  and  often  behind  the  march  of  governmental  changes. 
It  is  necessary  for  text-books  in  civics  to  be  revised  every  few  years, 
and  teachers  and  boards  of  education  should  see  to  it  that  up-to-date 
editions  are  in  use. 

2.  Not  enough  time  is  given  to  it.    American  history  and  civics 
make  a  year's  work,  and  often  almost  all  the  tune  is  used  for  the  his- 
tory.  It  would  be  a  better  plan,  if  the  course  could  be  arranged  so  that 
a  half  year  could  be  given  to  civics. 

3.  There  is  too  often  a  lack  of  supplementary  material.     Pupils 
do  not  have  access  to  books  other  than  their  text-books,  and  no  govern- 
ment reports  and  documents  are  provided  for  the  pupils'  use.    Much 
supplementary  material  may  be  had  at  little  cost,  and  teachers  should 
attend  to  getting  it  for  their  classes. 

4.  Too  many  teachers  have  not  had  the  proper  preparation  for 
teaching  civics  well.    In  many  small  secondary  schools,  the  teacher 
of  civics  must  teach  several  other  branches  and  cannot  make  the 
preparation  necessary  for  the  best  teaching.    It  is  sometimes  shifted 
from  one  teacher  to  another. 

5.  The  course  for  the  secondary  schools  is  usually  so  arranged  that 
civics  comes  in  either  the  third  or  fourth  year.    Since  so  many  pupils 
who  enter  the  secondary  schools  never  complete  the  course,  it  neces- 
sarily follows  that  many  of  them  never  get  the  work  in  civics.    A  par- 
tial solution  of  this  problem  would  be  to  emphasize  this  subject  to  a 
greater  degree  hi  the  elementary  school.    It  might  be  taught  earlier 
in  the  secondary  school,  but  it  seems  best  to  have  it  come  after  the 
other  work  in  history  has  been  completed. 


266  APPENDIX 

6.  In  many  schools  the  instruction  is  not  closely  enough  connected 
with  the  actual  working  of  the  government.  There  are  the  local 
officers  in  every  community,  and  pupils  should  be  taught  to  under- 
stand the  local  government.  Sometimes  the  instruction  is  carried  on 
as  if  the  government  was  a  fixed  thing  and  pupils  do  not  understand 
that  it  is  changing  all  the  time.  They  should  be  shown  how  every 
citizen  has  a  part  in  the  management  of  affairs,  and  an  earnest  effort 
should  be  made  to  instill  in  the  minds  of  pupils  a  high  ideal  of  citizen- 
ship. 

(b)  Strong  Points: 

1.  In  many  small  secondary  schools  civics  receives  very  little  atten- 
tion, but  in  those  of  the  best  grade  it  is  required  for  graduation.    This 
recognizes  its  importance  as  a  prominent  factor  in  the  education  of  the 
future  citizen.  It  is  usually  taught  in  the  last  year  and  is  combined  with 
United  States  history.    From  one-third  to  one-half  the  time  devoted 
to  history  and  civics  is  given  to  the  latter. 

2.  Teachers  generally  make  an  effort  to  impress  upon  their  pupils 
the  responsibilities  of  citizenship.    The  attention  of  the  pupil  is  called 
to  many  distinct  acts,  such  as  the  work  of  the  local,  state,  and  na- 
tional officers  in  the  community  where  the  school  is  located,  and  he 
begins  to  realize  that  the  life  of  the  community  in  which  he  lives  is 
very  complex.    In  addition  to  this,  teachers  try  to  have  pupils  under- 
stand their  relations  to  other  members  of  society  and  their  duties  and 
responsibilities  as  citizens. 

3.  In  our  better  secondary  schools  teachers  are  trying  to  relate  the 
actual  working  of  governmental  machinery  and  the  theoretical  dis- 
cussion of  the  text-book.    They  are  doing  this  by  using  the  reports  of 
various  commissions  and  officers,  the  Congressional  Record,  magazine 
articles,  and  newspapers. 

Submitted  by  L.  O.  Lantis,  Chairman. 

VIRGINIA 

A.  Preparation  of  the  Teachers  of  Civics: 

Three  sources  of  information  lay  open  to  us,  the  report  of  the 
department  of  education,  the  catalogues  of  the  colleges,  and  the  re- 
plies to  the  questionnaire.  All  of  the  information  in  the  possession  of 
the  department  is  embodied  in  its  annual  report  for  the  year  1914- 
1915.  From  this  we  learn  that  in  the  session  1914-1915  there  were  in 
the  state  1,320  high  school  teachers.  Of  these,  630 — 48% — had  at- 


APPENDIX  267 

tended  a  standard  college  two  or  more  years.  ("Standard"  is  used  in 
contrast  to  the  "Junior"  college  which  is  also  recognized  by  the  de- 
partment of  education.)  How  many  of  the  630  "college  trained 
teachers"  had  attended  college  two  years,  and  how  many  three  or 
four  years,  it  was  impossible  to  ascertain  either  from  the  report  or 
from  the  department.  All  of  the  standard  colleges  except  one  offer 
one  or  more  courses  in  political  science.  These  courses  are  elective 
except  in  one  college  and  are  usually  given  in  the  junior  or  senior  year. 
We  may  safely  assume  that  of  the  630  "college  trained  teachers" 
none  who  attended  college  two  years  only  had  taken  any  course  in 
political  science,  and  many  of  those  who  attended  three  or  four  years 
did  not  select  it  as  one  of  their  electives.  And  certainly  some  of  those 
who  did  take  political  science  are  teaching  other  subjects  and  not 
civics.  On  the  other  hand,  we  have  another  source  from  which  to  draw 
our  teachers.  There  were  118  graduates  of  normal  schools  teaching 
in  the  high  schools  in  1914-1915.  Practically  all  of  these  had  taken 
some  work  intended  to  fit  them  to  teach  civics.  Though  it  is  true  of 
course,  that  not  all  of  the  118  were  teaching  civics. 

As  stated  above,  all  of  the  standard  colleges  and  universities  of  the 
state,  except  Virginia  Polytechnic  Institute  offer  one  or  more  courses 
in  political  science.  In  one  college  only,  is  the  course  required.  These 
courses  as  a  rule  are  open  to  the  objection — as  far  as  the  preparation  of 
the  teachers  of  civics  is  concerned — that  they  deal  with  the  theory  of 
government  to  the  exclusion  of  the  structure  and  the  function  of 
government.  The  four  normal  schools  offer  courses  in  civics  and 
civics  teaching  which  are  required  for  those  who  are  training  to  teach 
in  the  upper  grammar  grades  or  the  high  schools.  The  questionnaire 
replies  are  too  indefinite  to  be  used  except  to  confirm  the  conclusion 
which  the  above  facts  seem  to  warrant,  viz.:  A  large  number,  per- 
haps 50  per  cent,  of  the  teachers  of  civics  in  the  high  schools  of  the  state 
have  had  no  special  preparation  to  fit  them  for  their  position. 

B.  Text-Books  and  Syllabus: 

So  far  as  we  can  learn  there  never  has  been  any  civics  syllabus, 
outline,  or  other  helpful  material  published  in  the  state.  The  recent 
course  of  study  for  the  high  schools  of  Virginia  contains  the  following 
statement  for  the  guidance  and  help  of  the  civics  teachers.  .  .  . 
"The  study  of  civics  is  as  far  as  possible  to  be  correlated  with  the 
study  of  history,  and  civics  should  be  taught,  especially  in  its  relation 
to  citizenship.  Local  government,  municipal  government,  state  and 
federal  government  should  be  taken  up  in  order.  The  proper  study 


268  APPENDIX 

of  the  county  or  city  as  a  unit  of  government  will  add  greatly  to  the 
preparation  for  intelligent  citizenship,  .  .  ."  p.  28. 

"With  American  history  comes  civics.  If  civics  is  taught  in  the  first 
or  second  year  Forman's  Essentials  in  Civil  Government  is  the  text 
to  be  used,  if  in  the  third  or  fourth  year  Forman's  Advanced  Civ- 
ics," p.  29.  The  state  reading  course  contains  no  book  on  its  list 
of  direct  value  to  the  teacher  of  civics. 

C.  Time  Allotment,  etc: 

The  state  course  of  study  requires  that  civics  be  taught  in  the  last 
year  of  the  high  school  in  connection  with  American  history.  One 
hundred  and  eighty  forty-minute  periods  are  required  for  the  two 
during  the  session.  No  provision  is  made  as  to  the  division  of  the 
time  between  the  two.  The  replies  to  the  questionnaire  were  com- 
paratively so  few  and  of  such  an  unsatisfactory  nature  that  but  little 
weight  can  be  placed  upon  them.  From  the  replies  received  we  learn 
the  time  allotted  civics  varies  from  36  to  90  periods  per  session.  The 
replies  were  about  evenly  divided  as  to  the  sufficiency  of  the  time 
allotment  and  the  adequacy  of  the  courses  to  train  for  citizenship. 
The  only  suggestion  as  to  how  this  training  could  be  better  given  was 
that  some  work  along  this  line  should  be  undertaken  in  each  grade 
beginning  with  the  fourth  grade  and  continuing  throughout  the  high 
school. 

The  order  followed  is  usually  that  of  the  text,  national,  state, 
local.  On  the  other  hand,  a  large  percentage  follow  the  order,  local, 
state,  national.  A  very  large  percentage  stress  the  duties  of  citizen- 
ship rather  than  the  form  or  function  of  government,  and  with  few 
exceptions  some  devices  are  employed  to  vitalize  the  subject  such  as 
debates,  newspaper  reports,  discussions  of  current  events,  and  local 
excursions.  The  replies  to  this  question  form  the  one  bright  spot 
upon  a  rather  dull  sky. 

Submitted  by  J.  M.  Lear,  Chairman. 

WASHINGTON 
A.  Normal  Schools: 

There  are  three  normal  schools  in  this  state,  two  of  which  report 
courses  in  civics.  These  courses  are  classified  as  of  high  school  rank, 
and  no  courses  are  offered  in  the  methods  of  teaching  civics.  The 
teachers  who  have  charge  of  the  work  are  well  trained  but  not  in  this 
special  line:  the  work  is  in  the  hands  of  women  teachers  who  majored 
in  English.  Few  devices,  such  as  visiting  court,  civics  scrap  books, 


APPENDIX  269 

debates,  talks  by  professional  men,  etc.,  are  used  in  any  of  the  normal 
schools.  Each  school  states  definitely  that  the  average  teacher  going 
out  into  the  rural  or  graded  work  is  not  sufficiently  prepared  to  teach 
the  subject  of  government.  The  normal  schools  recommend  the  use 
of  the  combined  American  history  and  civics  course  for  secondary 
schools  and  believe  that  a  suitable  book  could  and  should  be  prepared 
for  use  in  the  grades. 

B.  Civics  in  the  Schools  of  Spokane,  Seattle  and  Tacoma. 

1.  Elementary  Schools: 

In  Spokane  six  weeks  are  given  to  the  study  of  civics,  the  work  being 
based  on  Reinsch's  Civil  Government.  In  Seattle  and  Tacoma  in- 
struction in  civics  begins  in  the  6th  grade.  It  is  presented  incident- 
ally in  ^connection  with  a  study  of  the  history  of  the  state  of  Wash- 
ington.* From  this  time  on  local  civics  is  emphasized,  with  the  aim  to 
create  in  the  child  a  consciousness  of  his  immediate  social  environ- 
ment. In  the  last  half  of  the  8th  grade  a  text  is  used, — Dunn,  The' 
Community  and  The  Citizen. 

2.  High  Schools: 

In  the  high  schools  of  Spokane  a  separate  elective  semester  course  in 
civics  is  offered  in  the  second,  third  and  fourth  years.  Forman's 
American  Republic  is  made  the  basis  of  the  work,  supplemented  by 
the  city  charter,  state  constitution,  and  collateral  reading.  About 
one-third  of  the  semester  is  devoted  to  a  consideration  of  municipal 
and  state  government,  and  the  development  of  the  subject  proceeds 
from  national  to  state  and  local  forms.  The  main  emphasis  in  one  high 
school  is  laid  upon  the  organization  and  operation  of  government,  in 
the  other,  upon  the  duties  and  obligations  of  citizens. 

The  course  in  civics  in  Seattle  and  Tacoma  is  for  one  semester  and 
is  open  to  juniors  and  seniors.  .  The  class  meets  five  times  per  week. 
A  one  semester  course  is  offered  in  United  States  history.  This  course 
is  separate  from  the  civics  and  is  not  a  prerequisite  for  the  course  hi 
civics  or  vice  versa.  However,  students  that  take  the  civics  usually 
take  the  United  States  history  also,  because  of  the  recommendation 
of  the  history  faculty  and  the  expressed  preference  of  the  University 
of  Washington  for  United  States  history  and  civics  as  the  year's  his- 
tory required  for  entrance.  In  two  out  of  six  courses  in  Seattle  civics 
is  a  required  subject;  in  one  out  of  four  courses  it  is  a  required  subject 
in  Tacoma. 

In  Seattle  the  text  used  is  James  and  Sanford,  Government  in 


270  APPENDIX 

State  and  Nation.  In  Tacoma  it  is  Guitteau,  Government  and  Pol- 
itics in  the  United  States.  Supplementary  to  the  text  the  following 
are  reported  as  being  used:  Bryce,  American  Commonwealth;  Haskins, 
American  Government;  Hart,  Actual  Government;  Beard,  American 
Government;  Chandler,  History  of  the  State  of  Washington;  the  State 
Constitution  and  the  City  Charter. 

The  unanimous  opinion  of  the  teachers  is  that  one  semester  provides 
ample  time  for  the  teaching  of  civics  as  a  separate  course.  The  com- 
plaint is  just  as  unanimous  that  civics  is  not  required  in  all  courses 
and  that  too  few  follow  up  the  civics  with  the  study  of  economics. 

The  order  of  development  is  generally  to  proceed  from  local  to  state 
and  national  affairs.  All  of  the  teachers  report  an  extensive  use  of 
periodical  literature  and  the  special  devices  to  increase  interest  in 
current  events  and  the  practical  obligations  of  citizenship.  The  prep- 
aration of  the  teachers  in  these  schools  is  adequate  and  the  work  as  a 
rule  satisfactory. 

C.  Town  and  Smaller  City  High  Schools  of  Washington: 

The  material  in  this  report  has  been  gathered  from  the  replies  to  a 
questionnaire  sent  out  to  the  accredited  high  schools  of  the  state, 
outside  of  Seattle,  Spokane,  and  Tacoma.  Fifty-five  replies  have  been 
received  from  high  schools  whose  enrollment  runs  from  thirty-five 
to  nine  hundred  and  fifty. 

The  course  in  civics  is  a  one  semester  course  required  of  practically 
all  students  in  the  junior,  or  senior  year,  and  alternates  with  a 
semester  of  American  history.  The  course  as  offered  follows  closely 
the  course  as  outlined  in  the  State  Manual,  and  is  usually  given  in 
the  second  semester  of  each  school  year.  The  only  variation  from 
this  plan  that  the  replies  to  the  questionnaire  reveal  is  the  one-year 
combined  American  history  and  civics  course. 

A  wide  range  of  text-books  is  in  use — Ashley  leads  with  thirteen 
schools  reporting  its  use,  and  Guitteau,  Garner,  Chandler  and  Forman 
follow  in  the  order  named.  The  new  combined  American  history 
and  civics  by  Professor  West  is  receiving  favorable  comment  and 
some  use.  As  supplementary  texts,  a  large  number  of  books  are  in 
use,  including  Bryce,  Ashley,  Reinsch,  Beard,  Wilson,  etc. 

Wide  difference  of  opinion  is  found  among  the  school  men  of  the 
state  as  to  whether  a  sufficient  amount  of  time  is  now  given  to  the 
study  of  civics.  While  twenty-two  of  those  reporting  desire  a  longer 
period  of  time  in  which  to  do  justice  to  the  subject,  eleven  others 
express  the  opinion  that  we  now  have  enough  time  for  the  proper  in- 


APPENDIX  271 

culcation  of  the  ideas  and  ideals  we  desire  to  impress  providing  the 
time  is  properly  used  and  the  work  vigorously  prosecuted. 

In  the  relative  amounts  of  time  given  to  each  division  of  the  subject 
the  standard  seems  to  be  to  devote  one-third  of  the  time  to  each  ch'vi- 
sion.  The  most  notable  variation  from  this  scheme  is  the  giving  of 
one-half  of  the  time  to  the  national  government  and  one-fourth  each 
to  state  and  local  government.  Two  schools  report  that  one-half  of 
the  time  is  given  to  local  government,  and  the  other  half  divided 
between  national  and  state.  If  error  is  made  in  this  respect  in  Wash- 
ington, it  is,  we  should  say,  in  giving  too  much  time  to  the  national 
government  and  not  enough  to  local  government. 

Two-thirds  of  the  schools  report  that  they  develop  the  government 
of  the  nation  first,  passing  afterwards  to  the  state  and  local  govern- 
ments. 

Defects  in  Text-Books: 

The  defect  most  often  mentioned  is  that  they  do  not  cover  state 
and  community  requirements,  and  from  the  nature  of  things  that  is 
impossible.  A  more  just  criticism  is  that  they  do  not  sufficiently  em- 
phasize the  duties  of  citizenship.  Likewise  the  criticism  is  in  most 
cases  just  that  they  do  not  discuss  the  newer  forms  of  government, — 
commission  form,  etc.  We  are  not  as  one  in  what  constitutes  the  ideal 
text,  for  one  teacher  finds  the  text  at  fault  in  being  too  general,  while 
another  criticizes  another  text  for  giving  too  much  attention  to  de- 
tails. In  the  same  way,  one  teacher  complains  that  the  texts  do  not 
link  the  past  to  the  present,  while  another  declares  the  texts  at  fault 
for  paying  too  much  attention  to  the  history  of  the  institutions.  A 
number  complain  that  the  texts  in  use  are  too  technical  and  abstract, 
and  give  too  much  attention  to  form.  Charges  that  the  texts  are  not 
pedagogical,  that  they  ought  to  present  the  fundamentals  of  ele- 
mentary law,  and  that  they  do  not  correlate  the  work  with  history, 
economics  and  other  subjects,  call  attention  to  the  difficulties  of  the 
book  makers  in  pleasing  all  the  teachers  of  the  subject.  The  observa- 
tion of  one  superintendent  so  aptly  covers  our  own  impression  of  the 
matter  that  we  are  pleased  to  quote  it.  "There  may  be  some  defects, 
but  the  improvements  in  modern  text-books  on  civics  is  so  apparent 
that  we  ought  to  be  satisfied  for  a  time." 

Plan  of  Instruction  in  Government: 

Eight  teachers  of  civics  frankly  state  that  their  plan  is  to  develop 
the  organization  of  government  and  show  how  it  works,  while  twenty- 


272  APPENDIX 

two  others  just  as  frankly  declare  that  they  plan  for  the  training  of 
their  students  in  the  duties  and  obligations  of  citizenship.  Twelve 
teachers  declare  that  their  plan  covers  both  sides  of  the  question,  and 
by  developing  the  organization  and  operation  of  government,  they 
seek  to  develop  the  sense  of  the  responsibilities  of  citizenship. 

Aids  in  Teaching: 

In  some  twenty  schools  a  civics  scrap  book  is  maintained,  and  in 
others  a  bulletin  board  in  the  class  room  gives  opportunity  to  post 
clippings,  pictures  and  other  items  of  interest.  Practically  all  the 
schools  have  frequent  drill  in  current  events,  and  since  the  State 
Department  of  Education  organizes  and  carries  through  a  very  exten- 
sive series  of  inter-high-school  debates,  which  are  political  or  economic 
in  nature,  they  also  have  frequent  debates.  Over  half  of  the  schools 
reporting  have  talks  by  people  in  authority.  The  use  of  magazines, 
of  which  the  Digest  leads,  with  the  Independent,  Outlook,  Current 
Opinion  and  the  Review  of  Reviews  in  order,  is  also  reported.  Several 
interesting  special  developments  may  be  noted:  trips  or  tours,  classes 
organized  as  clubs  or  political  bodies,  research  work  and  reports  on 
special  municipal  topics,  elections,  etc.  Through  visits  to  courts, 
city  halls,  etc.,  and  by  interviews  with  officials,  two-thirds  of  the 
schools  are  able  to  awake  a  large  degree  of  interest  in  local  affairs. 

Realization  of  Aims: 

Those  who  have  made  special  preparation  to  teach  this  work  have 
no  hesitation  in  saying  that  it  is  the  most  important  of  the  subjects 
in  the  high  school  curriculum,  and  others  place  it  on  a  par  with  any 
of  the  other  work.  Few  there  are  who  do  not  feel  that  civics  is  essen- 
tial to  the  person  of  ordinary  intelligence.  Many  of  the  teachers  feel 
that  the  instruction  in  civics  would  be  more  far-reaching  if  it  were 
better  correlated  with  history,  economics,  English,  and  other  high 
school  subjects.  In  that  way  only  can  its  academic  flavor  be  lost  and 
can  it  become  a  part  of  the  life  of  the  students. 

A  considerable  number  of  teachers  believe  that  when  the  elementary 
work  is  well  done  we  are  realizing  the  aims  of  civics  teaching  in  as 
large  a  measure  as  the  immaturity  of  the  pupils  and  the  limited  time 
at  our  disposal  permit.  On  the  other  hand,  a  much  larger  number  of 
teachers  believe  we  are  falling  far  short  of  our  ideals.  Several  would 
like  time  to  trace  out  some  of  the  bearings  of  political  action  upon 
economic  problems  or  sociology.  Over  and  over,  complaint  is  made 
that  nothing  can  be  done  except  to  present  the  framework  of  govern- 


APPENDIX  273 

ment  because  the  time  allotment  is  so  short.  Others  feel  that  the  near- 
at-home  problems  have  had  no  consideration,  and  the  pupils  are  too 
immature  to  get  the  full  significance  of  the  work. 

D.  Final  Summary  and  Recommendations: 

1.  Civics  should  be  a  required  subject  for  graduation  in  every  course 
in  the  high  school. 

2.  To  provide  training  in  citizenship  for  the  great  number  of  our 
high  school  students  who  attend  high  school  only  for  one  or  two 
years,  a  course  should  be  offered  in  the  freshman  or  sophomore  year. 
The  subject-matter  of  this  course  should  be  largely  sociological.    If  a 
separate  course  of  this  kind  is  impossible  in  any  high  school,  then  there 
could  be  substituted  regular  work  hi  current  history  or  current  events, 
the  material  to  be  gathered  from  periodical  literature  and  newspapers. 
Work  of  this  kind  could  be  done  either  in  connection  with  the  regular 
English  or  history  courses  in  the  freshman  and  sophomore  years. 
Whether  the  course  suggested  were  provided  or  the  substitute,  the 
object  would  be  to  awaken  the  students  to  a  knowledge  of  and  an  in- 
terest in  the  social  life  and  problems  of  their  own  time.    We  need  to 
vitalize  the  work  for  the  girls  to  the  end  that  they  may  be  as  in- 
telligently trained  for  the  suffrage  as  the  boys. 

3.  The  subject-matter  of  civics  as  now  taught  hi  the  third  or  fourth 
year  of  high  school  should  include  more  of  the  practice  and  less  of  the 
theory  of  government.    It  should  emphasize  what  a  citizen  can  do  and 
how  he  can  do  it.   There  should  be  a  well  denned  plan  for  the  study  of 
present  day  problems.    Local  government  and  the  problems  of  the 
students'  immediate  social  environment  should  receive  more  attention. 

4.  Along  with  a  change  in  subject-matter  there  should  be  a  change 
in  methods  of  instruction.    A  variety  of  devices  should  be  resorted  to 
in  order  to  vitalize  the  subject  and  make  it  as  far  as  possible  experi- 
mental for  each  student.    Such  devices  include  scrap  books,  bulletin 
boards  for  the  posting  of  clippings,  talks  to  the  class  by  local  officers, 
visits  to  centres  of  community  interest,  debates,  etc.    The  survey 
upon  which  this  report  and  these  recommendations  are  based  shows 
that  civics  teachers  are  eager  to  avail  themselves  of  such  devices,  but 
the  crowded  program  of  the  rural  and  small  town  teacher  leaves  little 
tune  or  opportunity  for  originality  in  methods  of  instruction.    The 
way  to  help  such  teachers  is  to  suggest  such  devices  as  have  been 
found  practicable  and  give  full  details  for  their  use. 

5.  The  work  in  civics  should  be  thoroughly  standardized  by  the 
use  of  outlines,  and,  if  necessary,  by  uniform  examinations. 


274  APPENDIX 

6.  The  State  Board  of  Education  should  provide  at  cost  to  the 
high  schools  of  the  state,  a  state  manual.    This  manual  should  contain 
outlines  and  helps  for  the  teaching  of  local  and  state  civics.    It  should 
also  contain  portions  of  the  State  Constitution  and  a  brief  of  State 
history. 

7.  There  should  be  full  and  adequate  training  in  civics  and  in  the 
teaching  of  civics  provided  in  the  normal  schools  of  the  state  for  all 
graded  and  rural  teachers.    Every  teacher  should  have  the  prepara- 
tion to  fit  him  to  give  instruction  in  citizenship  and  such  instruction 
should  be  given  in  one  way  or  another  by  every  teacher.    The  fact 
that  the  teaching  of  civics  is  assigned  to  a  particular  teacher  as  a 
separate  course,  does  not  relieve  other  teachers  from  the  responsibility 
of  teaching  citizenship  any  more  than  the  fact  that  emphasis  is  placed 
on  spelling  and  grammar  in  a  particular  division  of  the  school  dis- 
charges other  teachers  from  giving  attention  to  these  subjects.    Since 
the  development  of  the  "citizen  spirit"  is  the  great  justification  for 
devoting  time  to  civics  in  the  high  school,  we  must  secure  teachers 
who  have  not  only  the  facts  of  the  subject,  but  also  an  ardor  and 
"citizenship  spirit"  which  are  contagious.1 

Submitted  by  A.  C.  Roberts,  Chairman. 

WEST  VIRGINIA 

The  greater  number  of  our  high  schools  follow  the  direction  of  our 
state  manual  as  to  the  time  given  to  the  teaching  of  government,  that 
is,  they  give  one  semester  of  the  senior  year  to  the  subject  of  govern- 
ment exclusively.  Five  recitation  periods  per  week  are  devoted  to  it 
for  a  period  of  eighteen  weeks  and  one-half  credit  is  granted  for  the 
completion  of  the  work.  There  are  variations,  however,  from  the 
mean  average  as  to  time.  In  some  of  the  smaller  high  schools,  govern- 
ment as  a  specific  subject  is  not  taught  at  all,  and  in  many  of  the  larger 
ones  a  whole  year  is  now  devoted  to  it.  The  number  of  high  schools 
which  do  not  teach  government  as  a  specific  subject  of  their  pro- 
grams is  very  few,  and  the  number  of  schools  that  are  adding  another 
half  year  is  steadily  increasing. 

The  course  in  government  is  elective  in  some  high  schools,  but  in  the 
majority  of  them  it  is  regarded  so  highly  as  to  be  a  required  subject. 

1  The  committee  also  submitted  a  suggested  plan  of  course  for  the  elemen- 
tary school,  junior  high  school  and  fourth  year  high  school.  As  the  essential 
features  of  this  plan  are  embodied  in  the  recommendations  of  the  Committee 
of  Seven  (pp.  78-111)  it  was  thought  unnecessary  to  include  the  plan  here. 


APPENDIX  275 

The  requirement  for  American  history  and  government  in  the  stronger 
high  schools  is  almost  as  universal  as  the  requirement  for  English. 
It  is  the  opinion  of  most  of  those  who  answered  our  questionnaire 
that  the  subject  of  government  is  one  of  the  most  important  and  most 
practical  that  can  be  taught  in  a  democratic  republic. 

In  schools  which  give  a  whole  year  to  government,  the  first  course  is 
generally  one  in  community  civics,  a  course  which  lays  emphasis  upon 
local  conditions  and  local  government.  This  course  is  a  new  one  and  is 
not  yet  required  to  any  great  extent,  although  it  is  regarded  as  a  very 
valuable  addition  to  the  program  of  studies.  It  is  usually  given  in  the 
first  year  with  Dunn's  Community  Civics  as  a  text,  supplemented  by  a 
study  of  local  conditions. 

The  course  in  advanced  civics  is  usually  given  in  the  fourth  year, 
and  consists  of  a  study  of  our  whole  governmental  system,  local,  state 
and  national.  This  is  the  course  that  is  generally  required.  In  addi- 
tion to  this  course,  economics  is  given  in  a  few  high  schools  as  an 
elective  subject. 

Forman's  The  American  Republic  is  the  favored  text  in  West 
Virginia,  since  it  is  adopted  by  the  state  school  book  board.  There  are 
several  high  schools  which  by  reason  of  the  dense  population  of  the 
community  where  they  are  located,  are  not  bound  by  the  action  of  the 
board.  These  schools  have  various  texts:  Forman's,  Ashley's,  Guit- 
teau's,  Garner's,  James  and  Sanford's,  and  Andrews's  Manual  of  the 
Constitution.  The  one  last  named  is  used  in  a  preparatory  school, 
not  a  high  school.  One  school  reported  no  special  text  which  of  course 
means  no  special  study  of  the  subject. 

As  to  reference  books,  supplementary  works,  etc.,  many  answered 
"too  numerous  to  mention."  Among  those  mentioned  are  Bryce's 
American  Commonwealth,  Beard's  books  on  the  subject,  Fiske's 
Critical  Period,  Ashley's  American  Federal  State,  Taussig's  Tariff 
History,  Garner's  Introduction  to  Political  Science,  various  other 
texts  on  government,  the  Congressional  Record,  public  documents, 
constitutions,  treaties  and  current  magazines.  It  seems  that  our  first 
class  high  schools  are  well  provided  with  reference  books. 

Many  and  varied  comments  were  made  concerning  defects  in  the 
text-books.  Several  of  these  follow.  "The  emphasis  is  wrongly 
placed,  too  much  national  and  too  little  local."  "  Too  much  organiza- 
tion and  operation,  too  little  of  duties  and  obligations  of  citizens." 
"Illogical  arrangement,  along  with  absence  of  clarification  and  of 
emphasis  of  fundamentals."  "Too  much  theory."  "They  are  not 
written  for  secondary  work."  "Too  wordy  and  too  abstract."  "Too 


276  APPENDIX 

much  form  and  not  enough  actual  working."  "Not  up  to  date." 
"No  supplement  for  the  state  government."  The  last  comment  refers 
to  the  lack  of  any  description  of  any  sort  of  the  government  of  the 
particular  state  in  which  the  subject  is  taught.  A  few  of  those  who 
answered  said  they  were  very  well  satisfied  with  their  texts  and 
thought  there  were  several  good  texts  in  existence. 

The  predominance  of  opinion  on  the  question  of  extension  of  time 
for  the  subject  is  favorable  to  the  increase.  Two-thirds  of  the  answers 
received  indicated  this  opinion.  Most  of  them  favored  extension  of 
time  to  one  full  year  for  government  alone.  A  few  wanted  one  and 
one-half  years  for  American  history  and  government  combined. 
Various  suggestions  were  made  to  provide  for  this  extension.  One 
advised  to  drop  English  history;  another,  to  shorten  the  time  for 
ancient,  mediaeval  and  modern  history;  others,  to  reduce  the  time  for 
Latin,  mathematics  and  possibly  English;  and  still  others,  to  lengthen 
the  high  school  course. 

The  majority  of  those  answering  the  questionnaire  agree  that  the 
proper  procedure  in  the  order  of  teaching  the  various  divisions  of  the 
subject  is  from  local,  through  state,  to  national,  but  there  are  several 
who  still  think  that  the  reverse  is  the  proper  way. 

About  two-thirds  of  the  schools  place  the  emphasis  upon  the  duties 
and  obligations  of  citizens  rather  than  upon  the  organization  and 
operation  of  the  government.  About  one-third  favor  the  reverse  em- 
phasis. Although  the  theory  of  the  first  is  more  favored,  the  practice 
of  the  second  seems  the  easier. 

Many  devices  to  supplement  the  teaching  are  used  in  our  high 
schools.  About  one-third  of  the  schools  which  reported  use  a  civics 
scrap  book,  and  nearly  all  have  drills  on  current  events.  Three-fourths 
of  them  have  debates  on  political  issues;  one-half  have  talks  by  public 
officials  concerning  applied  politics.  Practically  all  have  parallel  read- 
ing. Other  devices  which  were  reported,  but  are  not  very  widely 
used,  are:  the  student  legislature,  holding  of  elections  under  the 
regular  system,  trials,  special  home  survey  and  report  of  such  sur- 
veys. 

Local  government  is  made  a  subject  of  personal  field  investigation 
by  the  pupils  in  one-half  of  the  schools  reporting.  The  investigation 
generally  takes  the  form  of  visits  to  officials  at  work  and  interviews. 
Inspection  of  actual  conditions  prevails  in  many  schools,  especially  in 
the  matters  of  health,  sanitation,  water  supply,  etc.  This  phase  of 
the  study  of  government  has  grown  into  actual  cooperation  with 
city  officials  in  some  cities  for  the  purpose  of  accomplishing  some  es- 


APPENDIX  277 

pecially  desired  end,  for  instance,  in  the  campaign  for  a  new  school 
bond  issue  in  Huntington,  West  Virginia.  The  investigations  are 
always  followed  by  reports  and  papers,  which  of  course  compel  or- 
ganization of  material. 

The  systems  of  student  self-government  in  West  Virginia  high 
schools  are  practically  negligible  so  far  as  number  is  concerned.  There 
are  only  a  very  few  and  those  are  not  reported  as  completely  successful 
in  any  special  way.  This  is  comparatively  a  new  thing  here,  and  is 
now  just  being  tried  out  for  the  first  time  in  a  few  places.  One  school 
reported  a  school  city  plan  of  organization;  another,  an  organization 
on  state  and  national  plan;  one  other,  a  student  council;  and  still 
another,  a  student  body  association  which  took  care  of  all  matters  of 
general  interest  to  all  the  high  school.  No  particular  effect  on  dis- 
cipline is  reported  from  any  of  these.  Some  thought  a  knowledge  of 
parliamentary  law  was  gained,  a  fact  of  no  discriminating  value,  but 
none  mentioned  any  appreciable  effect  upon  civic  relations. 

There  were  many  answers  to  the  question  on  the  aim  of  instruction 
in  government,  but  not  all  need  be  included  in  this  report.  A  repre- 
sentative list  of  the  answers,  however,  is  necessary.  The  principal 
answers  follow:  "To  train  for  intelligent  citizenship."  "To  make  ef- 
ficient citizens."  "To  acquaint  with  duties  as  citizens."  "To  teach 
practical  problems  of  citizenship."  "To  familiarize  pupils  with  our 
system,  and  to  create  a  desire  to  be  good  citizens."  "Right  notions  of 
conduct,  clean  politics,  and  willingness  to  support  authority;"  "To 
make  plain  to  each  that  he  is  growing  into  citizenship  and  to  instill 
into  each  the  duties  and  privileges  of  a  citizen."  "  To  cultivate  proper 
ideals  of  civic  and  social  conduct  and  to  inspire  action  toward  the  at- 
tainment or  realization  of  the  ideals." 

With  reference  to  the  relation  of  government  to  the  other  subjects 
of  the  secondary  curriculum,  the  majority  of  answers  indicated  that 
it  should  be  closely  interwoven  with  history;  that  it  should  be  cor- 
related with  English,  with  economics  and  with  science;  and,  that  it 
should  be  required  for  one  year.  This  is  only  the  opinion  of  the  ma- 
jority of  those  who  answered  the  particular  question.  Most  of  the 
schools  reporting  did  not  answer  the  question. 

Upon  the  assumption  that  the  aim  of  instruction  in  government  is 
to  train  for  citizenship,  those  reporting  were  asked  whether  they  con- 
sidered their  course  adequate.  About  three-fourths  of  them  answered 
in  the  negative  and  assigned  various  reasons,  the  chief  of  which  was 
"not  sufficient  time."  Other  answers  were:  "not  practical  enough  "; 
"does  not  furnish  sufficient  acquaintance  ";  "poor  teaching  ";  "sub- 


278  APPENDIX 

ject-matter,  notice,  and  aim  are  wrong."  A  few  said  that  their  course 
satisfied  its  object,  and  others  added  to  that  statement,  "in  conjunc- 
tion with  history." 

As  to  special  preparation  for  the  teaching  of  government,  the 
teachers  of  the  subject  hi  the  schools  reporting  are  about  equally 
divided  between  "college  graduates  with  special  preparation,"  and 
"college  graduates  without  special  preparation."  That  special 
preparation  has  reference  to  subject-matter  alone.  There  are  ex- 
tremely few  who  are  reported  as  having  special  pedagogical  training 
as  preparation.  This  lack  is  one  of  the  great  weaknesses  in  the  matter 
of  preparation  to  teach  both  subjects,  history  and  government.  Sev- 
eral of  the  teachers  have  received  their  preparation  in  West  Virginia 
University,  but  the  schools  of  political  science  in  the  University  of 
Virginia,  in  Yale,  and  in  Columbia  have  their  representatives  among 
the  teachers  of  the  subject  in  this  state. 

The  suggestions  relative  to  ways  and  means  of  improvement  in 
instruction  in  government  are  many.  Among  them  are:  "Text  re- 
vision ";  "Special  preparation  of  teachers  ";  "Thorough  drills  on  the 
text";  "Practical  community  work";  "Governmental  organization 
in  the  high  school ";  "Better  home  training  ";  "  Vitalization  of  teach- 
ing and  showing  the  relation  to  life  and  public  welfare  ";  "Careful  in- 
troductory study  in  the  grades";  "Lengthening  of  the  term  in  the 
high  school ";  "General  agreement  on  the  work  desired  and  the  place 
to  offer  it  ";  "Connection  with  the  N.  E.  A.  committee  on  teaching  of 
civics";  "Cooperation  with  our  state  university  as  to  literature  on 
the  subject ";  "A  published  list  of  available  material  and  the  places 
to  get  it ";  and,  "Cooperative  work  with  community  officers." 

Nearly  half  of  the  schools  reporting  announce  no  cooperation  be- 
tween school,  and  civic  or  commercial  organizations  and  local  authori- 
ties. A  few  cooperate  with  officials  in  securing  a  certain  end.  Some 
have  lectures  from  the  officials,  and  in  many  places  the  pupils  are 
assisted  in  their  investigations,  but  only  one  school  reports  any  as- 
sistance from  a  civic  or  commercial  club.  Many  schools  have  in  fact 
never  asked  for  it. 

Our  normal  schools  are  doing  nothing  to  prepare  special  teachers  of 
civics.  They  spend  most  of  their  time  and  energy  training  grade 
teachers,  and  doing  high  school  work.  No  special  emphasis  is  given 
to  the  subject  of  government.  What  they  give  in  that  subject  is 
about  the  same  as  is  given  in  our  high  schools. 

No  special  syllabi  were  reported  by  the  city  superintendents  of  the 
state,  who  answered  the  request.  The  state  manual  is  a  guide,  and 


APPENDIX  279 

teaching  is  largely  text  teaching,  supplemented  by  a  little  local  in- 
vestigation, by  actual  visits  to  officers  and  trials,  public  meetings, 
etc. 

Submitted  by  C.  L.  Broadwater,  Chairman. 

WISCONSIN 

1.  We  favor  an  outline  of  civics  work  for  each  of  the  eight  grades 
below  the  high  school,  and  in  accord  with  the  brief  paragraph  outline 
in  your  digest  of  the  "Recommendation  of  Committee  of  Five  of  the 
American  Political  Science  Association,  1908  "  as  to  both  elementary 
and  high  schools.    In  this  connection,  we  wish  to  encourage  the  plan 
of  teaching  grade  civics  as  community  civics.    All  the  work  in  civics 
should  lead  to  a  realization  of  the  service  of  the  individual  as  a  part 
of  the  state.    Emphasize  the  duties  of  citizens  rather  than  the  control 
of  citizens  under  the  laws  of  the  state.   Never  to  forget  that  the  "  whole 
is  the  sum  of  the  parts  "  and  in  a  democracy  every  individual  has  a 
part  in  determining  the  character  of  the  state. 

2.  Our  views  on  what  the  course  of  study  should  be  in  the  grades 
are  fully  exemplified  in  the  course  of  study  in  Two  Rivers,  Wis., 
Indianapolis,  Ind.,  New  York  City  schools,  and  Superior,  Wis.     In 
all  of  these  cities,  the  course  provides  something  for  each  grade,  and 
the  point  of  view  is  the  ideal  one. 

3.  In  the  high  school,  as  I  have  said,  we  find  ourselves  in  accord 
with  the  recommendation  of  the  Political  Science  Association  of  1908. 
We  especially  wish  to  emphasize  that  our  committee  is  unanimous 
in  favoring  emphasis  placed  on  town,  county  and  state,  rather  than 
upon  the  national  government,  as  is  so  frequently  done.    We  do  not 
sympathize  with  the  plan  of  combining  American  history  and  civics 
in  one  year's  course,  as  is  done  in  many  places.    We  do  not  agree 
with  the  report  of  the  committee  to  the  Wisconsin  History  Teachers' 
Association,  which  I  inclose,  and  I  may  add,  neither  did  the  his- 
tory and  civics  teachers  at  the  Association  agree  with  the  re- 
port. 

4.  In  connection  with  local  civics  in  the  high  school,  we  recognize 
the  handicap  of  lack  of  text-book  material  accessible  to  teachers  and 
pupils. 

We  heartily  recommend  the  plan  recently  carried  out  by  the 
teachers  of  the  Rockford,  111.,  high  school,  and  the  Milwaukee  high 
schools.  Here  the  teachers  have,  in  the  absence  of  texts,  written  up 
their  own  outlines  for  their  pupils.  This  can  be  done,  in  most  cases,  in 


280  APPENDIX 

a  pamphlet  of  thirty  or  forty  pages,  and  can  be  printed  and  sold  to  the 
pupils  for  five  or  ten  cents.  The  result  is  a  thorough  treatment  of 
local  history  and  government.  We  recommend  that  at  least  two- 
thirds  of  the  civics  course  be  devoted  to  local  and  state  government. 

Submitted  by  A.  C.  Shong,  Chairman. 


INDEX 

Advanced  civics  in  secondary  schools,  46-76 

Alabama,  report  from,  231-233 

American  government  as  the  beginning  course,  203-217 

Historical  Association,  11-16 

history  and  civil  government,  3-5 

Political  Science  Association,  21-27 
Appendix,  reports  of  state  committees,  225-280 
Attendance  hi  college  courses,  190-192 

Bibliographical  suggestions  for  teachers,  119-121 

for  libraries  and  for  reference,  121-133 
Bibliographies  (arranged  in  alphabetical  order),  111-133 
Bryce,  James,  danger  in  civics  teaching,  32-33 
Bureau  of  education,  questionnaire  on  instruction  in  secondary  schools, 

46-50 
of  reference  on  civic  affairs,  133-134 

California,  report  from,  234-238 

Civics  for  the  education  of  the  electorate,  28-31 

for  social  service,  31-32 

Colleges  and  universities,  report  on  instruction  in,  135-224 
College  instruction,  observations  and  conclusions,  184-196 

function  of,  187-190 
Colorado,  report  from,  238-239 

Committee  of  eight,  American  Historical  Association,  13-14 
of  five,  American  Historical  Association,  14-16 
.of  five,  American  Political  Science  Association,  21-25 
of  seven,  American  Historical  Association,  12-13 
of  seven,  American  Political  Science  Association,  report  in  co- 
operation with  Bureau  of  Education,  46-64 
on  practical  training  for  public  service,  26-27 
on  social  studies,  National  Education  Association,  n 
Committees  on  municipal  government,  National  Municipal  League,  18-21 

.  281 


282  INDEX 

Community  Civics 

what  is,  83 
specific  aims  of,  83 
methods  of  teaching,  84-88;  95-99 
survey,  39-40 
Course  of  study  for  junior  high  school,  88-95 

for  senior  high  school,  loo-in 
Courses  offered  in  colleges  and  universities,  table  of,  141-183 

Deductive  method,  2-3 

Efforts  to  improve  the  teaching  of  government,  7-27 

Elementary  course  in  representative  colleges  and  universities,  2O7T2I7 

grades,  suggestions  for  civic  topics  in,  78-83 
Emphasis  in  civic  instruction,  55 

Field  investigation  and  preparation  of  surveys,  56-57 

General  conclusions  on  secondary  instruction,  61-64 
George  Junior  Republic,  36 
Georgia  Club,  37,  39 
Georgia,  report  from,  239-240 

Hall,  G.  Stanley,  on  teaching  of  civics,  31-32 
History  Teachers'  Associations,  16-17 
Home  county  club,  39 

Illinois,  report  from,  240-243 

Inadequate  provisions  for  instruction  in  colleges,  184-187 

Iowa,  report  from,  244 

Junior  high  school,  community  civics  for,  83 
Kentucky,  report  from,  244-246 

Madison  conference  on  history,  civil  government  and  economics,  9 
Maine,  report  from,  246-247 
Maryland,  report  from,  248-251 
Massachusetts,  report  from,  251-255 
Methods  of  teaching,  references  on,  111-119 

materials  and  devices,  34-35 

of  instruction  for  colleges,  193-194 
Michigan,  report  from,  255-258 


INDEX  283 

National  Education  Association,  8-n 

Municipal  League,  18-21 
Newark  plan,  37,  38 
New  Hampshire,  report  from,  258-259 
New  York,  report  from,  260-2^4 
Normal  schools,  training  of  teachers  in,  65-74 
North  Dakota,  report  from,  264 

Ohio,  report  from,  264-266 

Political  science,  definition  of,  199-200 

relation  to  history,  economics  and  sociology,  200-202 

Preparation  of  teachers,  58-59;  65-76 

Pupil  participation  in  school  management,  57-58 

Purpose  of  instruction  in  government,  27-28 

Questionnaire,  of  Bureau  of  Education  on  secondary  instruction,  46-50 
on  college  instruction,  135-136 

Recent  progress  in  the  teaching  of  government,  1-45 
Recommendations  for  secondary  instruction,  60-6 1 
for  college  instruction,  198-224 
Reference  library  on  civic  affairs,  40-42 

School  city,  19,  36 

Smith,  J.  F.,  model  lesson  on  country  roads,  98-99 

Snedden,  David,  essence  of  civic  education,  33 

Stages  in  the  advancement  of  civic  instruction,  1-6 

State  and  national  government,  41-44 

State  committees  and  state  representatives,  226-231 

on  the  teaching  of  civics  in  elementary  and  secondary 

schools,  225-280 
Study  of  the  constitution,  2 

Suggestions  as  to  courses  of  study  and  methods  of  approach,  77-111 
for  improvement,  secondary  instruction,  59-60 
college  instruction,  196-198 
Supplementary  books,  52 

Text-books,  for  college  instruction,  192-193 
for  elementary  schools,  119 
for  secondary  instruction,  51-53,  119 


284  INDEX 

Thoroughness,  44-45 

Time  given  to  civics,  50,  53-55 

Two  Rivers  plan,  37,  38 

Types  of  courses  in  political  science,  195-196 

Use  of  devices  to  supplement  instruction,  55-56 
Virginia,  report  from,  266-268 

Washington,  report  from,  268-274 
Ways  of  rendering  instruction  practical,  35-39 
West  Virginia,  report  from,  274-279 
Winston-Salem  junior  civic  league,  37 
Wisconsin,  report  from,  279-280 


Printed  in  the  United  States  of  America. 


E   following  pages    contain  advertisements  of  a 
few  of  the  Macmillan  books  on  kindred  subjects. 


American  Government  and  Politics 

BY  CHARLES  A.   BEARD 

Associate  Professor  of  Politics  in  Columbia  University 

NEW  YORK,  1910.    NEW  AND  REVISED  EDITION,  1914.    REPRINTED,  1915. 

Crown  8vo,  772  pages,  $2.10 

This  study  of  the  history,  forms,  and  practical 
workings  of  American  government  has  established 
itself  through  wide  and  continued  use  as  a  very  suc- 
cessful text  for  college  courses.  Equal  space  has 
been  allotted  to  federal  and  state  government,  the 
latter  heading  including  municipal  and  rural  gov- 
ernment. Throughout  the  volume,  emphasis  is  laid 
upon  the  evolution  of  political  issues  and  the  opera- 
tion of  party  machinery.  In  the  revised  edition 
Professor  Beard  has  recorded  the  important  changes 
of  the  last  four  years  while  eliminating  many  mat- 
ters of  detail  and  purely  local  or  temporary  interest. 
The  space  thus  gained  has  been  utilized  for  the 
purpose  of  including  summaries  and  discussing 
broad  tendencies  and  general  principles. 


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The  New  American  Government  and  Its  Work 
BY  JAMES  T.  YOUNG 

Professor  of  Public  Administration  in  the  University  of  Pennsylvania 

Cloth,  8vo,  $2.25 

This  book,  intended  for  that  growing  circle  of  readers 
who  are  interested  not  only  in  political  form  and  structure, 
but  also  more  especially  in  What  the  Government  Is  Doing 
and  Why,  is  characterized  by  the  following  features : 

1.  It  places  greater  emphasis  than  usual  on  the  Work  of 
the  government. 

2.  It  pays  more  attention  to  present  problems,  espe- 
cially to  the  Public  Regulation  of  Business. 

3.  It  applies  to  every  aspect  of  government  the  test  of 
Results  —  whether  the  subject  be  the  powers  of  the  Presi- 
dent, the  election  laws,  or  the  Sherman  act  —  for  the  value 
of  a  court,  a  statute,  or  a  political  institution  should  be 
known  by  its  output. 

4.  It  depicts  the  Government  As  It  Is,  and  as  it  has 
developed.     Our  system  is  not  a  finished  crystal,  nor  an 
ancient  historical  manuscript,  but  a  growth.     And  it  is 
still  growing. 

5.  It  includes  the  interpretation  of  the  Constitution  and 
the  chief  regulative  laws,  in  the  most  recent  Decisions  of 
the  Supreme  Court.     It  is  this  that  gives  clear,  definite 
meaning  to  the  discussion  of  government  forms  and  ac- 
tivities. 

6.  It  presents  an  Ideal.     It  does  not  hesitate  to  point 
out  the  moral  defects,  and  the  social  cost  of  political  weak- 
ness and  inefficiency,  but  its  Tone  is  Optimistic. 


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Comparative  Free  Government 

BY  JESSE  MACY 

Professor  Emeritus  of  Political  Science,  and 

JOHN  W.  GANNAWAY 

Professor  of  Political  Science,  in  Grinnell  College 

Crown  8vo,  f 54  pages,  $2.25 

The  United  States  is  made  the  basis  for  this  study  be- 
cause it  has  been  in  fact  the  pioneer  in  securing  world  rec- 
ognition for  free  government,  and  it  is  the  originator  of 
the  presidential  type.  The  first  part  of  "  Comparative 
Free  Government"  is  devoted  to  a  somewhat  detailed  de- 
scription of  the  organization  and  processes  of  government 
in  the  United  States,  both  state  and  national.  The  sec- 
ond part  is  devoted  chiefly  to  a  study  of  the  cabinet  type. 
England  is  given  first  place,  as  the  originator  of  the  sys- 
tem. France  exemplifies  most  completely  the  continental 
cabinet  system ;  Germany  is  presented  as  illustrating  the 
early  states  in  cabinet  development.  Switzerland  is  de- 
scribed as  a  perfected  democracy,  which  is  neither  cabinet 
nor  presidential.  Part  three  presents  a  brief  comparative 
study  of  selected  South  American  republics  and  smaller 
European  states.  The  object  of  the  book  is  to  throw  light 
upon  the  growth  and  perfection  of  free  government  in  all 
states,  rather  than  to  make  a  general  comparison  of  gov- 
ernmental institutions.  It  is  particularly  adapted  to  use  as 
a  textbook  in  college  courses,  and  makes  possible  the  giving 
of  a  first  course  of  the  type  suggested  in  the  report  of  the 
Committee  of  Seven  on  Instruction,  published  in  the  May 
issue  of  the  American  Political  Science  Review.  The  au- 
thors answer  the  Committee's  question  concerning  the 
proper  kind  of  basic  course  by  advocating  a  combination 
of  American  and  comparative  government  as  the  proper 
means  of  overcoming  the  "  inordinate  provincialism  which 
has  been  one  of  the  banes  of  our  national  life." 


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The  Governments  of  Europe 

BY  FREDERIC  AUSTIN  OGG,   PH.D. 

Assistant  Professor  of  Political  Science  in  the  University  of  Wisconsin 
NEW  YORK,  1913.    FOURTH  REPRINT,  1915. 

8vo,  668  pages,  $3.00 

Of  the  thirty-four  chapters  in  this  volume  on  "  The  Gov- 
ernments of  Europe,"  eight  are  devoted  to  Great  Britain, 
six  to  Germany,  four  to  France,  four  to  Austria-Hungary, 
three  to  Italy,  two  to  Switzerland,  and  one  each  to  Holland, 
Belgium,  Denmark,  Sweden,  Norway,  Spain,  and  Portugal. 
The  author  has  confined  himself  largely  to  a  description  of 
the  governments  of  to-day,  although  he  has  given  such 
brief  accounts  of  the  historical  origin  and  development  of 
the  present  constitutions  as  are  necessary  to  enable  the 
student  to  acquire  a  sound  and  comprehensive  view  of  the 
organization  and  administration  of  the  existing  govern- 
ments. These  historical  portions  are  so  arranged  as  to  be 
readily  omitted.  So  far  as  is  possible  in  the  limits  of  a 
single  volume,  the  author  has  treated  the  federal,  state,  and 
local  governments,  the  executive,  legislative,  and  judicial 
branches  thereof,  and  the  organizations,  doctrines,  and 
workings  of  the  political  parties.  Comparisons  of  the  gov- 
ernments of  the  different  countries  have  been  made  when 
and  only  when  they  will  be  found  of  real  interest  and  value 
to  the  student.  The  book  will  be  found  especially  adapted 
to  use  as  a  text  in  college  courses  on  Comparative,  Con- 
stitutional, or  European  Governments. 


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The  Government  of  American  Cities 

BY  WILLIAM   BENNETT  MUNRO,  PH.D.,  LL.B. 

Professor  of  Municipal  Government  in  Harvard  University 

8vo,  415  pages,  $2.00 

Recent  strides  in  municipal  government  have 
necessitated  extensive  changes  and  additions  to 
this  standard  text  to  bring  it  abreast  of  present- 
day  progress.  Its  general  character,  however,  re- 
mains the  same,  —  to  quote  the  author,  "a  descrip- 
tion of  the  machinery  of  city  government  in  the 
United  States,"  dealing  with  "government  rather 
than  administration,  with  the  framework  rather 
than  with  the  functioning  mechanism  of  the  mu- 
nicipal organization." 

Professor  Munro  has  not  only  brought  census 
figures  and  other  statistics  up  to  date,  but  has 
added  an  important  chapter  on  "  The  City  Man- 
ager Plan "  and  expanded  the  chapter  on  "  The 
City  and  the  State "  to  include  a  discussion  of 
the  new  optional  charter  laws  in  New  York  and 
Massachusetts. 

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Principles  and  Methods  of 
Municipal  Administration 

BY  WILLIAM   BENNETT  MUNRO 

8vo,  491  pages,  $2.25 

Professor  Munro's  new  volume  deals  with  the  ac- 
tual administrative  functions  of  the  city,  thus  sup- 
plementing his  earlier  volumes  on  the  structure 
of  city  government  in  Europe  and  America.  It 
includes  chapters  on  such  important  fields  of  day- 
to-day  municipal  work  as  city  planning,  street  ad- 
ministration, water  supply,  sanitation,  police,  fire 
protection,  public  lighting,  school  management,  and 
municipal  finance.  In  each  chapter  there  is  a  good 
deal  more  than  a  mere  survey  of  the  subject,  yet 
everything  is  discussed  in  a  non-technical  way.  The 
author's  aim  has  been  to  show  in  an  accurate  and 
interesting  way  just  how  the  city  departments  are 
organized  for  their  work,  what  problems  they  have 
to  face,  and  how  they  try  to  meet  these  problems. 
In  a  word,  he  deals  very  fully  with  what  may  be 
called  the  mechanics  of  present-day  city  govern- 
ment, and  that  is  the  phase  of  the  subject  which 
requires  most  attention  to-day. 


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